Hemocytes and plasma of the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) display a diverse repertoire of sulfated and blood group A-modified N-glycans

Galactosylation of glycoconjugates using Pacific oyster β-1,3-galactosyltransferases

The Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas) exhibits an extensive diversity of N- and O-linked glycoconjugates, offering significant potential for biotechnological applications. Through genomic data mining, we have identified and characterized a suite of β-1,3-galactosyltransferase enzymes, pivotal for the synthesis of glycan structures. Out of ten cloned gene candidates, six enzymes were successfully expressed recombinantly in Escherichia coli. Four of these enzymes exhibited measurable catalytic activity in the transfer of galactose to various acceptor substrates. Notably, MgB3GalT1 demonstrated the highest efficiency, achieving a 91.2 % conversion rate. This enzyme was proficient in glycosylating diverse glycan structures, including Core 2 O-glycans and several di-, tri-, and tetra-antennary complex N-glycan standards. Mass spectrometric analysis confirmed the successful modification of N-glycans. These findings open new approaches for utilizing oyster-derived enzymes in glycan-based therapeutics and molecular glycoengineering, highlighting their utility in synthetic applications and biotechnological advancements.

Species-Specific N-Glycomes and Methylation Patterns of Oysters Crassostrea gigas and Ostrea edulis and Their Possible Consequences for the Norovirus-HBGA Interaction

Noroviruses, the major cause of acute viral gastroenteritis, are known to bind to histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), including ABH groups and Lewis-type epitopes, which decorate the surface of erythrocytes and epithelial cells of their host tissues. The biosynthesis of these antigens is controlled by several glycosyltransferases, the distribution and expression of which varies between tissues and individuals. The use of HBGAs as ligands by viruses is not limited to humans, as many animal species, including oysters, which synthesize similar glycan epitopes that act as a gateway for viruses, become vectors for viral infection in humans. Here, we show that different oyster species synthesize a wide range of N-glycans that share histo-blood A-antigens but differ in the expression of other terminal antigens and in their modification by O-methyl groups. In particular, we show that the N-glycans isolated from Crassostrea gigas and Ostrea edulis exhibit exquisite methylation patterns in their terminal N-acetylgalactosamine and fucose residues in terms of position and number, adding another layer of complexity to the post-translational glycosylation modifications of glycoproteins. Furthermore, modeling of the interactions between norovirus capsid proteins and carbohydrate ligands strongly suggests that methylation has the potential to fine-tune the recognition events of oysters by virus particles.

Marine glycoproteins: a mine of their structures, functions and potential applications

Many bioactive compounds are reported from marine organisms, which are significantly different from those found in terrestrial organisms regarding their chemical structures and pharmacological activities. Marine glycoproteins (MGs) have aroused increasing attention as a good nutrient source owing to their potential applications in medicine, cosmetics and food. However, there is a lack of a comprehensive study on MGs to help readers understand the current state of research on marine-derived glycoproteins. The current review compiles the recent progress made on the structures and functions of MGs with future perspectives to maximize their value and applications via bibliometric analysis methods for the first time. The current research on MGs appears mostly limited to the laboratory, with no large-scale production of marine glycoproteins developed. The sugar chains are bound to proteins through covalent bonds that can readily be cleaved leading to difficultly in their separation and purification. Health effects attributed to MGs include treatment of inflammatory diseases, as well as anti-oxidant, immune modulation, anti-tumor, hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, anti-bacterial and anti-freeze activities. This review can not only deepen the understanding of the functions of MGs, but also lay an important foundation for the further development and utilization of marine resources.

N-glycan breakdown by bacterial CAZymes

The modification of proteins by N-glycans is ubiquitous to most organisms and they have multiple biological functions, including protecting the adjoining protein from degradation and facilitating communication or adhesion between cells, for example. Microbes have evolved CAZymes to deconstruct different types of N-glycans and some of these have been characterised from microbes originating from different niches, both commensals and pathogens. The specificity of these CAZymes provides clues as to how different microbes breakdown these substrates and possibly cross-feed them. Discovery of CAZymes highly specific for N-glycans also provides new tools and options for modifying glycoproteins.

Structural and evolutionary insights into the multidomain galectin from the red abalone Haliotis rufescens with specificity for sulfated glycans

Galectins are an evolutionarily ancient family of lectins characterized by their affinity for β-galactosides and a conserved binding site in the carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD). These lectins are involved in multiple physiological functions, including the recognition of glycans on the surface of viruses and bacteria. This feature supports their role in innate immune responses in marine mollusks. Here, we identified and characterized a galectin, from the mollusk Haliotis rufescens (named HrGal), with four CRDs that belong to the tandem-repeat type. HrGal was purified by affinity chromatography in a galactose-agarose resin and exhibited a molecular mass of 64.11 kDa determined by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The identity of HrGal was verified by sequencing, confirming that it is a 555 amino acid protein with a mass of 63.86 kDa. This protein corresponds to a galectin reported in GenBank with accession number AHX26603. HrGal is stable in the presence of urea, reducing agents, and ions such as Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺. The recombinant galectin (rHrGal) was purified from inclusion bodies in the presence of these ions. A theoretical model obtained with the AlphaFold server exhibits four non-identical CRDs, with a β sandwich folding and the representative motifs for binding β-galactosides. This allows us to classify HrGal within the tandem repeat galectin family. On the basis of a phylogenetic analysis, we found that the mollusk sequences form a monophyletic group of tetradomain galectins unrelated to vertebrate galectins. HrGal showed specificity for galactosides and glucosides but only the sulfated sugars heparin and ι-carrageenan inhibited its hemagglutinating activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 4 mM and 6.25 X 10^-5% respectively. The position of the sulfate groups seemed crucial for binding, both by carrageenans and heparin.

Negative-mode mass spectrometry in the analysis of invertebrate, fungal, and protist N-glycans

The approaches for analysis of N-glycans have radically altered in the last 20 years or so. Due to increased sensitivity, mass spectrometry has become the predominant method in modern glycomics. Here, we summarize recent studies showing that the improved resolution and detection by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has contributed greatly to the discovery of a large range of anionic and zwitterionic N-glycan structures across the different kingdoms of life, whereby MALDI-TOF MS in negative mode is less widely performed than in positive mode. However, its use enables the detection of key fragments indicative of certain sugar modifications such as sulfate, (methyl) phosphate, phosphoethanolamine, (methyl)aminoethylphosphonate, glucuronic, and sialic acid, thereby enabling certain isobaric glycan variations to be distinguished. As we also discuss in this review, complementary approaches such as negative-mode electrospray ionization-MS/MS, Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance MS, and ion mobility MS yield, respectively, cross-linkage fragments, high accuracy masses, and isomeric information, thus adding other components to complete the jigsaw puzzle when defining unusual glycan modifications from lower organisms.

Towards understanding the extensive diversity of protein N-glycan structures in eukaryotes

N‐glycosylation is an important post‐translational modification of proteins that has been highly conserved during evolution and is found in Eukaryota, Bacteria and Archaea. In eukaryotes, N‐glycan processing is sequential, involving multiple specific steps within the secretory pathway as proteins travel through the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. In this review, we first summarize the different steps of the N‐glycan processing and further describe recent findings regarding the diversity of N‐glycan structures in eukaryotic clades. This comparison allows us to explore the different regulation mechanisms of N‐glycan processing among eukaryotic clades. Recent findings regarding the regulation of protein N‐glycosylation are highlighted, especially the regulation of the biosynthesis of complex‐type N‐glycans through manganese and calcium homeostasis and the specific role of transmembrane protein 165 (TMEM165) for which homologous sequences have been identified in several eukaryotic clades. Further research will be required to characterize the function of TMEM165 homologous sequences in different eukaryotic clades.

Mollusc N-glycosylation: Structures, Functions and Perspectives

Molluscs display a sophisticated N-glycan pattern on their proteins, which is, in terms of involved structural features, even more diverse than that of vertebrates. This review summarises the current knowledge of mollusc N-glycan structures, with a focus on the functional aspects of the corresponding glycoproteins. Furthermore, the potential of mollusc-derived biomolecules for medical applications is addressed, emphasising the importance of mollusc research.

Glycomics, Glycoproteomics, and Glycogenomics: An Inter-Taxa Evolutionary Perspective

Glycosylation is a highly diverse set of co- and posttranslational modifications of proteins. For mammalian glycoproteins, glycosylation is often site-, tissue-, and species-specific and diversified by microheterogeneity. Multitudinous biochemical, cellular, physiological, and organismic effects of their glycans have been revealed, either intrinsic to the carrier proteins or mediated by endogenous reader proteins with carbohydrate recognition domains. Furthermore, glycans frequently form the first line of access by or defense from foreign invaders, and new roles for nucleocytoplasmic glycosylation are blossoming. We now know enough to conclude that the same general principles apply in invertebrate animals and unicellular eukaryotes-different branches of which spawned the plants or fungi and animals. The two major driving forces for exploring the glycomes of invertebrates and protists are (i) to understand the biochemical basis of glycan-driven biology in these organisms, especially of pathogens, and (ii) to uncover the evolutionary relationships between glycans, their biosynthetic enzyme genes, and biological functions for new glycobiological insights. With an emphasis on emerging areas of protist glycobiology, here we offer an overview of glycan diversity and evolution, to promote future access to this treasure trove of glycobiological processes.

Extracellular Vesicles and Post-Translational Protein Deimination Signatures in Mollusca-The Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis), Soft Shell Clam (Mya arenaria), Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) and Atlantic Jacknife Clam (Ensis leei)

Simple Summary

Oysters and clams form an important component of the food chain and food security and are of considerable commercial value worldwide. They are affected by pollution and climate change, as well as a range of infections, some of which are opportunistic. For aquaculture purposes they are furthermore of great commercial value and changes in their immune responses can also serve as indicators of changes in ocean environments. Therefore, studies into understanding new factors in their immune systems may aid new biomarker discovery and are of considerable value. This study assessed new biomarkers relating to changes in protein function in four economically important marine molluscs, the blue mussel, soft shell clam, Eastern oyster, and Atlantic jacknife clam. These findings indicate novel regulatory mechanisms of important metabolic and immunology related pathways in these mollusks. The findings provide new understanding to how these pathways function in diverse ways in different animal species as well as aiding new biomarker discovery for Mollusca aquaculture.

Abstract

Oysters and clams are important for food security and of commercial value worldwide. They are affected by anthropogenic changes and opportunistic pathogens and can be indicators of changes in ocean environments. Therefore, studies into biomarker discovery are of considerable value. This study aimed at assessing extracellular vesicle (EV) signatures and post-translational protein deimination profiles of hemolymph from four commercially valuable Mollusca species, the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), soft shell clam (Mya arenaria), Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), and Atlantic jacknife clam (Ensis leei). EVs form part of cellular communication by transporting protein and genetic cargo and play roles in immunity and host–pathogen interactions. Protein deimination is a post-translational modification caused by peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs), and can facilitate protein moonlighting in health and disease. The current study identified hemolymph-EV profiles in the four Mollusca species, revealing some species differences. Deiminated protein candidates differed in hemolymph between the species, with some common targets between all four species (e.g., histone H3 and H4, actin, and GAPDH), while other hits were species-specific; in blue mussel these included heavy metal binding protein, heat shock proteins 60 and 90, 2-phospho-D-glycerate hydrolyase, GTP cyclohydrolase feedback regulatory protein, sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase, and fibrinogen domain containing protein. In soft shell clam specific deimination hits included dynein, MCM3-associated protein, and SCRN. In Eastern oyster specific deimination hits included muscle LIM protein, beta-1,3-glucan-binding protein, myosin heavy chain, thaumatin-like protein, vWFA domain-containing protein, BTB domain-containing protein, amylase, and beta-catenin. Deiminated proteins specific to Atlantic jackknife clam included nacre c1q domain-containing protein and PDZ domain-containing protein In addition, some proteins were common as deiminated targets between two or three of the Bivalvia species under study (e.g., EP protein, C1q domain containing protein, histone H2B, tubulin, elongation factor 1-alpha, dominin, extracellular superoxide dismutase). Protein interaction network analysis for the deiminated protein hits revealed major pathways relevant for immunity and metabolism, providing novel insights into post-translational regulation via deimination. The study contributes to EV characterization in diverse taxa and understanding of roles for PAD-mediated regulation of immune and metabolic pathways throughout phylogeny.

Galectin-mediated immune recognition: Opsonic roles with contrasting outcomes in selected shrimp and bivalve mollusk species

Galectins are a structurally conserved family of ß-galactoside-binding lectins characterized by a unique sequence motif in the carbohydrate recognition domain, and of wide taxonomic distribution, from fungi to mammals. Their biological functions, initially described as key to embryogenesis and early development via recognition of endogenous ("self") carbohydrate moieties, are currently understood as also encompassing tissue repair, cancer metastasis, angiogenesis, adipogenesis, and regulation of immune homeostasis. More recently, however, numerous studies have contributed to establish a new paradigm by revealing that galectins can also bind to exogenous ("non-self") glycans on the surface of potentially pathogenic virus, bacteria, and eukaryotic parasites, and function both as pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) and effector factors in innate immunity. Our studies on a galectin from the kuruma shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus (MjGal), revealed that it functions as a typical PRR. Expression of MjGal is upregulated by infectious challenge, and can recognize both Gram (+) and Gram (-) bacteria. MjGal also recognizes carbohydrates on the shrimp hemocyte surface, and can cross-link microbial pathogens to the hemocytes, promoting their phagocytosis and clearance from circulation. Therefore, MjGal contributes to the shrimp's immune defense against infectious challenge both as a PRR and effector factor. Our studies on galectins from the bivalve mollusks, however, have shown that although they can function in immune defense as MjGal, protistan parasites take advantage of the recognition roles of the host galectins, for successful attachment and host infection. We identified in the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica two galectins (CvGal1 and CvGal2) that not only recognize a large variety of bacterial species, but also the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus. Like the shrimp MjGal, both oyster galectins function as opsonins, and promote parasite adhesion and phagocytosis. However, P. marinus survives intrahemocytic oxidative killing and proliferates, eventually causing systemic infection and death of the oyster host. In the softshell clam Mya arenaria we identified a galectin (MaGal1) that displays carbohydrate specificity and recognition properties for sympatric Perkinsus species (P. marinus and P. chesapeaki), that are different from CvGal1 and CvGal2. Our results suggest that although galectins from bivalves can function as PRRs, Perkinsus parasites have co-evolved with their hosts to subvert the galectins' immune functions for host infection by acquisition of carbohydrate-based mimicry.

Biochemical Characterization of Oyster and Clam Galectins: Selective Recognition of Carbohydrate Ligands on Host Hemocytes and Perkinsus Parasites

Both vertebrates and invertebrates display active innate immune mechanisms for defense against microbial infection, including diversified repertoires of soluble and cell-associated lectins that can effect recognition and binding to potential pathogens, and trigger downstream effector pathways that clear them from the host internal milieu. Galectins are widely distributed and highly conserved lectins that have key regulatory effects on both innate and adaptive immune responses. In addition, galectins can bind to exogenous (“non-self”) carbohydrates on the surface of bacteria, enveloped viruses, parasites, and fungi, and function as recognition receptors and effector factors in innate immunity. Like most invertebrates, eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and softshell clams (Mya arenaria) can effectively respond to most immune challenges through soluble and hemocyte-associated lectins. The protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus, however, can infect eastern oysters and cause “Dermo” disease, which is highly detrimental to both natural and farmed oyster populations. The sympatric Perkinsus chesapeaki, initially isolated from infected M. arenaria clams, can also be present in oysters, and there is little evidence of pathogenicity in either clams or oysters. In this review, we discuss selected observations from our studies on the mechanisms of Perkinsus recognition that are mediated by galectin-carbohydrate interactions. We identified in the oyster two galectins that we designated CvGal1 and CvGal2, which strongly recognize P. marinus trophozoites. In the clam we also identified galectin sequences, and focused on one (that we named MaGal1) that also recognizes Perkinsus species. Here we describe the biochemical characterization of CvGal1, CvGal2, and MaGal1 with focus on the detailed study of the carbohydrate specificity, and the glycosylated moieties on the surfaces of the oyster hemocytes and the two Perkinsus species (P. marinus and P. chesapeaki). Our goal is to gain further understanding of the biochemical basis for the interactions that lead to recognition and opsonization of the Perkinsus trophozoites by the bivalve hemocytes. These basic studies on the biology of host-parasite interactions may contribute to the development of novel intervention strategies for parasitic diseases of biomedical interest.

Anionic and zwitterionic moieties as widespread glycan modifications in non-vertebrates

Glycan structures in non-vertebrates are highly variable; it can be assumed that this is a product of evolution and speciation, not that it is just a random event. However, in animals and protists, there is a relatively limited repertoire of around ten monosaccharide building blocks, most of which are neutral in terms of charge. While two monosaccharide types in eukaryotes (hexuronic and sialic acids) are anionic, there are a number of organic or inorganic modifications of glycans such as sulphate, pyruvate, phosphate, phosphorylcholine, phosphoethanolamine and aminoethylphosphonate that also confer a 'charged' nature (either anionic or zwitterionic) to glycoconjugate structures. These alter the physicochemical properties of the glycans to which they are attached, change their ionisation when analysing them by mass spectrometry and result in different interactions with protein receptors. Here, we focus on N-glycans carrying anionic and zwitterionic modifications in protists and invertebrates, but make some reference to O-glycans, glycolipids and glycosaminoglycans which also contain such moieties. The conclusion is that 'charged' glycoconjugates are a widespread, but easily overlooked, feature of 'lower' organisms.

Glycosylation at an evolutionary nexus: the brittle star Ophiactis savignyi expresses both vertebrate and invertebrate N-glycomic features

Echinoderms are among the most primitive deuterostomes and have been used as model organisms to understand chordate biology because of their close evolutionary relationship to this phylogenetic group. However, there are almost no data available regarding the N-glycomic capacity of echinoderms, which are otherwise known to produce a diverse set of species-specific glycoconjugates, including ones heavily modified by fucose, sulfate, and sialic acid residues. To increase the knowledge of diversity of carbohydrate structures within this phylum, here we conducted an in-depth analysis of N-glycans from a brittle star (Ophiactis savignyi) as an example member of the class Ophiuroidea. To this end, we performed a multi-step N-glycan analysis by HPLC and various exoglyosidase and chemical treatments in combination with MALDI-TOF MS and MS/MS. Using this approach, we found a wealth of hybrid and complex oligosaccharide structures reminiscent of those in higher vertebrates as well as some classical invertebrate glycan structures. 70% of these N-glycans were anionic, carrying either sialic acid, sulfate, or phosphate residues. In terms of glycophylogeny, our data position the brittle star between invertebrates and vertebrates and confirm the high diversity of N-glycosylation in lower organisms.

Sulfated and sialylated N-glycans in the echinoderm Holothuria atra reflect its marine habitat and phylogeny

Among the earliest deuterostomes, the echinoderms are an evolutionary important group of ancient marine animals. Within this phylum, the holothuroids (sea cucumbers) are known to produce a wide range of glycoconjugate biopolymers with apparent benefits to health; therefore, they are of economic and culinary interest throughout the world. Other than their highly modified glycosaminoglycans (e.g. fucosylated chondroitin sulfate and fucoidan), nothing is known about their protein-linked glycosylation. Here we used multistep N-glycan fractionation to efficiently separate anionic and neutral N-glycans before analyzing the N-glycans of the black sea cucumber (Holothuria atra) by MS in combination with enzymatic and chemical treatments. These analyses showed the presence of various fucosylated, phosphorylated, sialylated, and multiply sulfated moieties as modifications of oligomannosidic, hybrid, and complex-type N-glycans. The high degree of sulfation and fucosylation parallels the modifications observed previously on holothuroid glycosaminoglycans. Compatible with its phylogenetic position, H. atra not only expresses vertebrate motifs such as sulfo- and sialyl-Lewis A epitopes but displays a high degree of anionic substitution of its glycans, as observed in other marine invertebrates. Thus, as for other echinoderms, the phylum- and order-specific aspects of this species' N-glycosylation reveal both invertebrate- and vertebrate-like features.

Galectins in Host-Pathogen Interactions: Structural, Functional and Evolutionary Aspects

Galectins are a family of ß-galactoside-binding lectins characterized by a unique sequence motif in the carbohydrate recognition domain, and evolutionary and structural conservation from fungi to invertebrates and vertebrates, including mammals. Their biological roles, initially understood as limited to recognition of endogenous ("self") carbohydrate ligands in embryogenesis and early development, dramatically expanded in later years by the discovery of their roles in tissue repair, cancer, adipogenesis, and regulation of immune homeostasis. In recent years, however, evidence has also accumulated to support the notion that galectins can bind ("non-self") glycans on the surface of potentially pathogenic microbes, and function as recognition and effector factors in innate immunity. Thus, this evidence has established a new paradigm by which galectins can function not only as pattern recognition receptors but also as effector factors, by binding to the microbial surface and inhibiting adhesion and/or entry into the host cell, directly killing the potential pathogen by disrupting its surface structures, or by promoting phagocytosis, encapsulation, autophagy, and pathogen clearance from circulation. Strikingly, some viruses, bacteria, and protistan parasites take advantage of the aforementioned recognition roles of the vector/host galectins, for successful attachment and invasion. These recent findings suggest that galectin-mediated innate immune recognition and effector mechanisms, which throughout evolution have remained effective for preventing or fighting viral, bacterial, and parasitic infection, have been "subverted" by certain pathogens by unique evolutionary adaptations of their surface glycome to gain host entry, and the acquisition of effective mechanisms to evade the host's immune responses.

Human protein paucimannosylation: cues from the eukaryotic kingdoms

Paucimannosidic proteins (PMPs) are bioactive glycoproteins carrying truncated α- or β-mannosyl-terminating asparagine (N)-linked glycans widely reported across the eukaryotic domain. Our understanding of human PMPs remains limited, despite findings documenting their existence and association with human disease glycobiology. This review comprehensively surveys the structures, biosynthetic routes and functions of PMPs across the eukaryotic kingdoms with the aim of synthesising an improved understanding on the role of protein paucimannosylation in human health and diseases. Convincing biochemical, glycoanalytical and biological data detail a vast structural heterogeneity and fascinating tissue- and subcellular-specific expression of PMPs within invertebrates and plants, often comprising multi-α1,3/6-fucosylation and β1,2-xylosylation amongst other glycan modifications and non-glycan substitutions e.g. O-methylation. Vertebrates and protists express less-heterogeneous PMPs typically only comprising variable core fucosylation of bi- and trimannosylchitobiose core glycans. In particular, the Manα1,6Manβ1,4GlcNAc(α1,6Fuc)β1,4GlcNAcβAsn glycan (M2F) decorates various human neutrophil proteins reportedly displaying bioactivity and structural integrity demonstrating that they are not degradation products. Less-truncated paucimannosidic glycans (e.g. M3F) are characteristic glycosylation features of proteins expressed by human cancer and stem cells. Concertedly, these observations suggest the involvement of human PMPs in processes related to innate immunity, tumorigenesis and cellular differentiation. The absence of human PMPs in diverse bodily fluids studied under many (patho)physiological conditions suggests extravascular residence and points to localised functions of PMPs in peripheral tissues. Absence of PMPs in Fungi indicates that paucimannosylation is common, but not universally conserved, in eukaryotes. Relative to human PMPs, the expression of PMPs in plants, invertebrates and protists is more tissue-wide and constitutive yet, similar to their human counterparts, PMP expression remains regulated by the physiology of the producing organism and PMPs evidently serve essential functions in development, cell-cell communication and host-pathogen/symbiont interactions. In most PMP-producing organisms, including humans, the N-acetyl-β-hexosaminidase isoenzymes and linkage-specific α-mannosidases are glycoside hydrolases critical for generating PMPs via N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase I (GnT-I)-dependent and GnT-I-independent truncation pathways. However, the identity and structure of many species-specific PMPs in eukaryotes, their biosynthetic routes, strong tissue- and development-specific expression, and diverse functions are still elusive. Deep exploration of these PMP features involving, for example, the characterisation of endogenous PMP-recognising lectins across a variety of healthy and N-acetyl-β-hexosaminidase-deficient human tissue types and identification of microbial adhesins reactive to human PMPs, are amongst the many tasks required for enhanced insight into the glycobiology of human PMPs. In conclusion, the literature supports the notion that PMPs are significant, yet still heavily under-studied biomolecules in human glycobiology that serve essential functions and create structural heterogeneity not dissimilar to other human N-glycoprotein types. Human PMPs should therefore be recognised as bioactive glycoproteins that are distinctly different from the canonical N-glycoprotein classes and which warrant a more dedicated focus in glycobiological research.

Comparisons of N-glycans across invertebrate phyla

Many invertebrates are either parasites themselves or vectors involved in parasite transmission; thereby, the interactions of parasites with final or intermediate hosts are often mediated by glycans. Therefore, it is of interest to compare the glycan structures or motifs present across invertebrate species. While a typical vertebrate modification such as sialic acid is rare in lower animals, antennal and core modifications of N-glycans are highly varied and range from core fucose, galactosylated fucose, fucosylated galactose, methyl groups, glucuronic acid and sulphate through to addition of zwitterionic moieties (phosphorylcholine, phosphoethanolamine and aminoethylphosphonate). Only in some cases are the enzymatic bases and the biological function of these modifications known. We are indeed still in the phase of discovering invertebrate glycomes primarily using mass spectrometry, but molecular biology and microarraying techniques are complementary to the determination of novel glycan structures and their functions.

Isomeric Separation and Recognition of Anionic and Zwitterionic N-glycans from Royal Jelly Glycoproteins

Royal jelly has received attention because of its necessity for the development of queen honeybees as well as claims of benefits on human health; this product of the hypopharyngeal glands of worker bees contains a large number of proteins, some of which have been claimed to have various biological effects only in their glycosylated state. However, although there have been glycomic and glycoproteomic analyses in the past, none of the glycan structures previously defined would appear to have potential to trigger specific biological functions. In the current study, whole royal jelly as well as single protein bands were subject to off-line LC-MALDI-TOF MS glycomic analyses, complemented by permethylation, Western blotting and arraying data. Similarly to recent in-depth studies on other insect species, previously overlooked glucuronic acid termini, sulfation of mannose residues and core β-mannosylation of the N-glycans were found; additionally, a relatively rare zwitterionic modification with phosphoethanolamine is present, in contrast to the phosphorylcholine occurring in lepidopteran species. Indicative of tissue-specific remodelling of glycans in the Golgi apparatus of hypopharyngeal gland cells, only a low amount of fucosylated or paucimannosidic glycans were detected as compared with other insect samples or even bee venom. The unusual modifications of hybrid and multiantennary structures defined here may not only have a physiological role in honeybee development, but represent epitopes recognized by pentraxins with roles in animal innate immunity.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2013-2014

This review is the eighth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2014. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation, and arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly- saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides, and biopharmaceuticals. Much of this material is presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions, and applications to chemical synthesis. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev 37:353-491, 2018.

Functions of galectins as 'self/non-self'-recognition and effector factors

Carbohydrate structures on the cell surface encode complex information that through specific recognition by carbohydrate-binding proteins (lectins) modulates interactions between cells, cells and the extracellular matrix, or mediates recognition of potential microbial pathogens. Galectins are a family of ß-galactoside-binding lectins, which are evolutionary conserved and have been identified in most organisms, from fungi to invertebrates and vertebrates, including mammals. Since their discovery in the 1970s, their biological roles, initially understood as limited to recognition of endogenous carbohydrate ligands in embryogenesis and development, have expanded in recent years by the discovery of their roles in tissue repair and regulation of immune homeostasis. More recently, evidence has accumulated to support the notion that galectins can also bind glycans on the surface of potentially pathogenic microbes, and function as recognition and effector factors in innate immunity, thus establishing a new paradigm. Furthermore, some parasites 'subvert' the recognition roles of the vector/host galectins for successful attachment or invasion. These recent findings have revealed a striking functional diversification in this structurally conserved lectin family.

Characterization of hemocytes from different body fluids of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica

Bivalve hemocytes are involved in a variety of physiological and immunological functions. Circulating hemocytes in the hemolymph represent the main component of the internal self-defense system while hemocytes present in the extrapallial space (between the mantle and the shell) are actively involved in biomineralization and shell formation. This study focused on the characterization of hemocytes from different body fluids of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Hemocytes present in the hemolymph were compared to those contained in the extrapallial fluid. Hemocytes associated with the mucus layer covering pallial organs (mantle, gills, body wall) were also investigated because of their potential role as sentinel cells. Hemocytes were characterized using flow cytometry in conjunction with fluorescent epitope markers (clusters of differentiation, lectins) as well as functional assays (i.e. phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species -ROS). Compared with the hemolymph, there was a significantly greater percentage of granulocytes and agranulocytes among extrapallial and pallial hemocytes, respectively. Accounting for the different percentages of hemocyte sub-populations, significant differences in surface carbohydrate and clusters of differentiation signatures were also revealed between the different fluids. Most informative epitope markers included concanavalin A, peanut agglutinin, soybean agglutinin, CD11b and CD14. Functional assays revealed significant differences in phagocytic activity and ROS production between hemocytes from the extrapallial fluid and hemolymph; however, less robust differences were observed between hemolymph cells and hemocytes associated with the pallial mucus. Findings from this study suggest that there are markedly different hemocyte populations in the three body fluids. The role of peripheral cells, particularly those associated with the pallial mucus, requires further investigations.

The underestimated N-glycomes of lepidopteran species

BACKGROUND

Insects are significant to the environment, agriculture, health and biotechnology. Many of these aspects display some relationship to glycosylation, e.g., in case of pathogen binding or production of humanised antibodies; for a long time, it has been considered that insect N-glycosylation potentials are rather similar and simple, but as more species are glycomically analysed in depth, it is becoming obvious that there is indeed a large structural diversity and interspecies variability.

METHODS

Using an off-line LC-MALDI-TOF MS approach, we have analysed the N-glycomes of two lepidopteran species (the cabbage looper Trichoplusia ni and the gypsy moth Lymantria dispar) as well as of the commonly-used T. ni High Five cell line.

RESULTS

We detected not only sulphated, glucuronylated, core difucosylated and Lewis-like antennal fucosylated structures, but also the zwitterion phosphorylcholine on antennal GlcNAc residues, a modification otherwise familiar from nematodes; in L. dispar, N-glycans with glycolipid-like antennae containing α-linked N-acetylgalactosamine were also revealed.

CONCLUSION

The lepidopteran glycomes analysed not only display core α1,3-fucosylation, which is foreign to mammals, but also up to 5% anionic and/or zwitterionic glycans previously not found in these species.

SIGNIFICANCE

The occurrence of anionic and zwitterionic glycans in the Lepidoptera data is not only of glycoanalytical and evolutionary interest, but is of biotechnological relevance as lepidopteran cell lines are potential factories for recombinant glycoprotein production.

Analysis of Invertebrate and Protist N-Glycans

N-glycans from invertebrates and protists have often unusual structures which present analytical challenges. Both core and antennal modifications can be quite different from the more familiar vertebrate glycan motifs; thereby, contrary to the concept that "simple" organisms have "simple" N-glycans, rather complex oligosaccharides structures, including zwitterionic and anionic ones, have been found in a range of species. Thus, to facilitate the optimized elucidation of the maximal possible range of structures, the analytical workflow for glycomics of these organisms should include sequential release and fractionation steps. Peptide:N-glycosidase F is sufficient to isolate N-glycans from fungi and some protists, but in most invertebrates core α1,3-fucose is present, so release of the glycans from glycopeptides with peptide:N-glycosidases A is required. Subsequent solid-phase extraction with graphitized carbon and reversed phase resins enables different classes of N-glycans to be separated prior to high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Depending on the types and numbers of glycans present, either reversed- or normal-phase HPLC (or both in series) enable even single isomeric or isobaric structures to be separated prior to MALDI-TOF MS and MS/MS. The use of enzymatic or chemical treatments allows further insights to be gained, although some glycan modifications (especially methylation) are resistant. Using a battery of methods, sometimes up to 100 structures from a single organism can be assigned, a complexity which raises evolutionary questions regarding the function of these glycans.

Gender and developmental specific N-glycomes of the porcine parasite Oesophagostomum dentatum

BACKGROUND

The porcine nodule worm Oesophagostomum dentatum is a strongylid class V nematode rather closely related to the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. However, in contrast to the non-parasitic C. elegans, the parasitic O. dentatum is an obligate sexual organism, which makes both a gender and developmental glycomic comparison possible.

METHODS

Different enzymatic and chemical methods were used to release N-glycans from male and female O. dentatum as well as from L3 and L4 larvae. Glycans were analysed by MALDI-TOF MS after either 2D-HPLC (normal then reversed phase) or fused core RP-HPLC.

RESULTS

Whereas the L3 N-glycome was simpler and more dominated by phosphorylcholine-modified structures, the male and female worms express a wide range of core fucosylated N-glycans with up to three fucose residues. Seemingly, simple methylated paucimannosidic structures can be considered 'male', while methylation of fucosylated glycans was more pronounced in females. On the other hand, while many of the fucosylated paucimannosidic glycans are identical with examples from other nematode species, but simpler than the tetrafucosylated glycans of C. elegans, there is a wide range of phosphorylcholine-modified glycans with extended HexNAc_2-4PC_2-4 motifs not observed in our previous studies on other nematodes.

CONCLUSION

The interspecies tendency of class V nematodes to share most, but not all, N-glycans applies also to O. dentatum; furthermore, we establish, for the first time in a parasitic nematode, that glycomes vary upon development and sexual differentiation.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Unusual methylated, core fucosylated and phosphorylcholine-containing N-glycans vary between stages and genders in a parasitic nematode.

"Hypermethylation" of anthranilic acid-labeled sugars confers the selectivity required for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Analysis of the monosaccharides of complex carbohydrates is often performed by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Unfortunately, methylated sugars, unusual amino- or deoxysugars and incomplete hydrolysis can lead to erroneous assignments of peaks. Here, we demonstrate that a volatile buffer system is suitable for the separation of anthranilic acid labeled sugars. It allows off-line examination of peaks by electrospray mass spectrometry. Approaches towards on-line mass spectrometric detection using reversed-phase or porous graphitic carbon columns fell short of achieving sufficient separation of the relevant isobaric sugars. Adequate chromatographic performance for isomeric sugars was achieved with reversed-phase chromatography of "hyper"-methylated anthranilic acid-labeled monosaccharides. Deuteromethyl iodide facilitates the discovery of naturally methylated sugars and identification of their parent monosaccharide as demonstrated with N-glycans of the snail Achatina fulica, where two thirds of the galactoses and a quarter of the mannoses were methylated.

Comparison of RP-HPLC modes to analyse the N-glycome of the free-living nematode Pristionchus pacificus

Pristionchus pacificus is a free-living nematode increasingly used as an organism for comparison to the more familiar model Caenorhabditis elegans. In this study, we examined the N-glycans of this organism isolated after serial release with peptide:N-glycosidases F and A; after fluorescent labelling with 2-aminopyridine, chromatographic fractionation by three types of RP-HPLC (with either classical C18, fused core C18 or alkylamide-bonded phases) followed by mass spectrometric analyses revealed key features of its N-glycome. In addition to paucimannosidic and oligomannosidic glycans typical of invertebrates, N-glycans with two core fucose residues were detected. Furthermore, a range of glycans carrying up to three phosphorylcholine residues was observed whereas, unlike C. elegans, no tetrafucosylated N-glycans were detected. Structures with three fucose residues, unusual methylation of core α1,3-fucose or with galactosylated fucose motifs were found in low amounts; these features may correlate with a different ensemble or expression of glycosyltransferase genes as compared to C. elegans. From an analytical perspective, both the alkylamide RP-amide and fused core C18 columns, as compared to a classical C18 material, offer advantages in terms of resolution and of elution properties, as some minor pyridylamino-labelled glycans (e.g. those carrying phosphorylcholine) appear in earlier fractions and so potential losses of such structures due to insufficient gradient length can be avoided.

Analysis of zwitterionic and anionic N-linked glycans from invertebrates and protists by mass spectrometry

Glycomic analyses over the years have revealed that non-vertebrate eukaryotes express oligosaccharides with inorganic and zwitterionic modifications which are either occurring in different contexts as compared to, or are absent from, mammals. Examples of anionic N-glycans (carrying sulphate or phosphate) are known from amoebae, fungi, molluscs and insects, while zwitterionic modifications by phosphorylcholine, phosphoethanolamine and aminoethylphosphonate occur on N-, O- and lipid-linked glycans from trichomonads, annelids, fungi, molluscs, insects, cestodes and nematodes. For detection of zwitterionic and anionic glycans, mass spectrometry has been a key method, but their ionic character affects the preparation and purification; therefore, as part of a glycomic strategy, the possibility of their presence must be considered in advance. On the other hand, their ionisation and fragmentation in positive and negative ion mode mass spectrometry as well as specific chemical or enzymatic treatments can prove diagnostic to their analysis. In our laboratory, we combine solid-phase extraction, reversed and normal phase HPLC, MALDI-TOF MS, exoglycosidase digests and hydrofluoric acid treatment to reveal N-glycans modified with anionic and zwitterionic moieties in a wide range of organisms. It is to be anticipated that, as more species are glycomically analysed, zwitterionic and anionic modifications of N-glycans will prove rather widespread. This knowledge is - in the longer term - then the basis for understanding the function of this cornucopia of glycan modifications.

Characterization of an α-l-fucosidase from the periodontal pathogen Tannerella forsythia

The periodontal pathogen Tannerella forsythia expresses several glycosidases which are linked to specific growth requirements and are involved in the invasion of host tissues. α-l-Fucosyl residues are exposed on various host glycoconjugates and, thus, the α-l-fucosidases predicted in the T. forsythia ATCC 43037 genome could potentially serve roles in host-pathogen interactions. We describe the molecular cloning and characterization of the putative fucosidase TfFuc1 (encoded by the bfo_2737 = Tffuc1 gene), previously reported to be present in an outer membrane preparation. In terms of sequence, this 51-kDa protein is a member of the glycosyl hydrolase family GH29. Using an artificial substrate, p-nitrophenyl-α-fucose (KM 670 μM), the enzyme was determined to have a pH optimum of 9.0 and to be competitively inhibited by fucose and deoxyfuconojirimycin. TfFuc1 was shown here to be a unique α(1,2)-fucosidase that also possesses α(1,6) specificity on small unbranched substrates. It is active on mucin after sialidase-catalyzed removal of terminal sialic acid residues and also removes fucose from blood group H. Following knock-out of the Tffuc1 gene and analyzing biofilm formation and cell invasion/adhesion of the mutant in comparison to the wild-type, it is most likely that the enzyme does not act extracellularly. Biochemically interesting as the first fucosidase in T. forsythia to be characterized, the biological role of TfFuc1 may well be in the metabolism of short oligosaccharides in the periplasm, thereby indirectly contributing to the virulence of this organism. TfFuc1 is the first glycosyl hydrolase in the GH29 family reported to be a specific α(1,2)-fucosidase.

Multistep Fractionation and Mass Spectrometry Reveal Zwitterionic and Anionic Modifications of the N- and O-glycans of a Marine Snail

Various studies in the past have revealed that molluscs can produce a wide range of rather complex N-glycan structures, which vary from those occurring in other invertebrate animals; particularly methylated glycans have been found in gastropods, and there are some reports of anionic glycans in bivalves. Due to the high variability in terms of previously described structures and methodologies, it is a major challenge to establish glycomic workflows that yield the maximum amount of detailed structural information from relatively low quantities of sample. In this study, we apply differential release with peptide:N-glycosidases F and A followed by solid-phase extraction on graphitized carbon and reversed-phase materials to examine the glycome of Volvarina rubella (C. B. Adams, 1845), a margin snail of the clade Neogastropoda. The resulting four pools of N-glycans were fractionated on a fused core RP-HPLC column and subject to MALDI-TOF MS and MS/MS in conjunction with chemical and enzymatic treatments. In addition, selected N-glycan fractions, as well as O-glycans released by β-elimination, were analyzed by porous graphitized carbon-LC-MS and MS(n). This comprehensive approach enabled us to determine a number of novel modifications of protein-linked glycans, including N-methyl-2-aminoethylphosphonate on mannose and N-acetylhexosamine residues, core β1,3-linked mannose, zwitterionic moieties on core Galβ1,4Fuc motifs, additional mannose residues on oligomannosidic glycans, and bisubstituted antennal fucose; furthermore, typical invertebrate N-glycans with sulfate and core fucose residues are present in this gastropod.

Structural characterization and biological implications of sulfated N-glycans in a serine protease from the neotropical moth Hylesia metabus (Cramer [1775]) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

Contact with the urticating setae from the abdomen of adult females of the neo-tropical moth Hylesia metabus gives rise to an urticating dermatitis, characterized by intense pruritus, generalized malaise and occasionally ocular lesions (lepidopterism). The setae contain a pro-inflammatory glycosylated protease homologous to other S1A serine proteases of insects. Deglycosylation with PNGase F in the presence of a buffer prepared with 40% H2 (18)O allowed the assignment of an N-glycosylation site. Five main paucimannosidic N-glycans were identified, three of which were exclusively α(1-6)-fucosylated at the proximal GlcNAc. A considerable portion of these N-glycans are anionic species sulfated on either the 4- or the 6-position of the α(1-6)-mannose residue of the core. The application of chemically and enzymatically modified variants of the toxin in an animal model in guinea pigs showed that the pro-inflammatory and immunological reactions, e.g. disseminated fibrin deposition and activation of neutrophils, are due to the presence of sulfate-linked groups and not on disulfide bonds, as demonstrated by the reduction and S-alkylation of the toxin. On the other hand, the hemorrhagic vascular lesions observed are attributed to the proteolytic activity of the toxin. Thus, N-glycan sulfation may constitute a defense mechanism against predators.

Structural, functional, and evolutionary aspects of galectins in aquatic mollusks: From a sweet tooth to the Trojan horse

Galectins constitute a conserved and widely distributed lectin family characterized by their binding affinity for β-galactosides and a unique binding site sequence motif in the carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD). In spite of their structural conservation, galectins display a remarkable functional diversity, by participating in developmental processes, cell adhesion and motility, regulation of immune homeostasis, and recognition of glycans on the surface of viruses, bacteria and protozoan parasites. In contrast with mammals, and other vertebrate and invertebrate taxa, the identification and characterization of bona fide galectins in aquatic mollusks has been relatively recent. Most of the studies have focused on the identification and domain organization of galectin-like transcripts or proteins in diverse tissues and cell types, including hemocytes, and their expression upon environmental or infectious challenge. Lectins from the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica, however, have been characterized in their molecular, structural and functional aspects and some notable features have become apparent in the galectin repertoire of aquatic mollusks. These including less diversified galectin repertoires and different domain organizations relative to those observed in vertebrates, carbohydrate specificity for blood group oligosaccharides, and up regulation of galectin expression by infectious challenge, a feature that supports their proposed role(s) in innate immune responses. Although galectins from some aquatic mollusks have been shown to recognize microbial pathogens and parasites and promote their phagocytosis, they can also selectively bind to phytoplankton components, suggesting that they also participate in uptake and intracellular digestion of microalgae. In addition, the experimental evidence suggests that the protozoan parasite Perkinsus marinus has co-evolved with the oyster host to be selectively recognized by the oyster hemocyte galectins over algal food or bacterial pathogens, thereby subverting the oyster's innate immune/feeding recognition mechanisms to gain entry into the host cells.

Targeted release and fractionation reveal glucuronylated and sulphated N- and O-glycans in larvae of dipteran insects

Mosquitoes are important vectors of parasitic and viral diseases with Anopheles gambiae transmitting malaria and Aedes aegypti spreading yellow and Dengue fevers. Using two different approaches (solid-phase extraction and reversed-phase or hydrophilic interaction HPLC fractionation followed by MALDI-TOF MS or permethylation followed by NSI-MS), we examined the N-glycans of both A. gambiae and A. aegypti larvae and demonstrate the presence of a range of paucimannosidic glycans as well as bi- and tri-antennary glycans, some of which are modified with fucose or with sulphate or glucuronic acid residues; the latter anionic modifications were also found on N-glycans of larvae from another dipteran species (Drosophila melanogaster). The sulphate groups are attached primarily to core α-mannose residues (especially the α1,6-linked mannose), whereas the glucuronic acid residues are linked to non-reducing β1,3-galactose. Also, O-glycans were found to possess glucuronic acid and sulphate as well as phosphoethanolamine modifications. The presence of sulphated and glucuronylated N-glycans is a novel feature in dipteran glycomes; these structures have the potential to act as additional anionic glycan ligands involved in parasite interactions with the vector host.

Galectin CvGal2 from the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) Displays Unique Specificity for ABH Blood Group Oligosaccharides and Differentially Recognizes Sympatric Perkinsus Species

Galectins are highly conserved lectins that are key to multiple biological functions, including pathogen recognition and regulation of immune responses. We previously reported that CvGal1, a galectin expressed in phagocytic cells (hemocytes) of the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), is hijacked by the parasite Perkinsus marinus to enter the host, where it causes systemic infection and death. Screening of an oyster hemocyte cDNA library revealed a novel galectin, which we designated CvGal2, with four tandemly arrayed carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs). Phylogentic analysis of the CvGal2 CRDs suggests close relationships with homologous CRDs from CvGal1. Glycan array analysis, however, revealed that, unlike CvGal1 which preferentially binds to the blood group A tetrasaccharide, CvGal2 recognizes both blood group A and B tetrasaccharides and related structures, suggesting that CvGal2 has broader binding specificity. Furthermore, SPR analysis demonstrated significant differences in the binding kinetics of CvGal1 and CvGal2, and structural modeling revealed substantial differences in their interactions with the oligosaccharide ligands. CvGal2 is homogeneously distributed in the hemocyte cytoplasm, is released to the extracellular space, and binds to the hemocyte surface. CvGal2 binds to P. marinus trophozoites in a dose-dependent and β-galactoside-specific manner. Strikingly, negligible binding of CvGal2 was observed for Perkinsus chesapeaki, a sympatric parasite species mostly prevalent in the clams Mya arenaria and Macoma balthica. The differential recognition of Perkinsus species by the oyster galectins is consistent with their relative prevalence in oyster and clam species and supports their role in facilitating parasite entry and infectivity in a host-preferential manner.

Mucin-Type O-Glycosylation in Invertebrates

O-Glycosylation is one of the most important posttranslational modifications of proteins. It takes part in protein conformation, protein sorting, developmental processes and the modulation of enzymatic activities. In vertebrates, the basics of the biosynthetic pathway of O-glycans are already well understood. However, the regulation of the processes and the molecular aspects of defects, especially in correlation with cancer or developmental abnormalities, are still under investigation. The knowledge of the correlating invertebrate systems and evolutionary aspects of these highly conserved biosynthetic events may help improve the understanding of the regulatory factors of this pathway. Invertebrates display a broad spectrum of glycosylation varieties, providing an enormous potential for glycan modifications which may be used for the design of new pharmaceutically active substances. Here, overviews of the present knowledge of invertebrate mucin-type O-glycan structures and the currently identified enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of these oligosaccharides are presented, and the few data dealing with functional aspects of O-glycans are summarised.

The roles of direct recognition by animal lectins in antiviral immunity and viral pathogenesis

Lectins are a group of proteins with carbohydrate recognition activity. Lectins are categorized into many families based on their different cellular locations as well as their specificities for a variety of carbohydrate structures due to the features of their carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) modules. Many studies have indicated that the direct recognition of particular oligosaccharides on viral components by lectins is important for interactions between hosts and viruses. Herein, we aim to globally review the roles of this recognition by animal lectins in antiviral immune responses and viral pathogenesis. The different classes of mammalian lectins can either recognize carbohydrates to activate host immunity for viral elimination or can exploit those carbohydrates as susceptibility factors to facilitate viral entry, replication or assembly. Additionally, some arthropod C-type lectins were recently identified as key susceptibility factors that directly interact with multiple viruses and then facilitate infection. Summarization of the pleiotropic roles of direct viral recognition by animal lectins will benefit our understanding of host-virus interactions and could provide insight into the role of lectins in antiviral drug and vaccine development.

A galectin with quadruple-domain from red abalone Haliotis rufescens involved in the immune innate response against to Vibrio anguillarum

Galectins are proteins that recognize and bind specifically β-galactosidase residues, playing important roles in the innate immune response of vertebrates and invertebrates. The cDNA of a tandem repeat galectin from the red abalone Haliotis rufescens cDNA (HrGal) was cloned and characterized using rapid amplification of cDNA end technique. The full-length cDNA of HrGal was 2471 bp, with a 5' terminal untranslated region (UTR) of 131 bp, a 3' UTR of 672 pb, and an open reading frame (ORF) of 1668 bp encoding a polypeptide of 556 amino acid. The ORF contains four domains carbohydrate recognition (CRD) with typical conserved motifs, which are important for carbohydrate recognition, and it appear to posses neither a signal peptide nor a transmembrane domain. The deduced amino acid sequence and the multi-domain organization of HrGal were highly similar to those described for other tandem repeat galectins of invertebrate organisms. Quantitative real time PCR analyses indicated that HrGal mRNA was highly expressed in hemocytes and gills tissues. The temporal expression of HrGal mRNA in hemocytes challenged to Vibrio anguillarum was time-dependent, showing u-regulation at 32 h post challenge. The results suggest that HrGal may be involved in the immune innate response against bacterial infection.

N-glycomic profiling of a glucosidase II mutant of Dictyostelium discoideum by ''off-line'' liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry

In this study, we have performed the first mass spectrometric analysis of N-glycans of the M31 mutant strain of the cellular slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum, previously shown to have a defect in glucosidase II. Together with glucosidase I, this enzyme mediates part of the initial processing of N-glycans; defects in either glucosidase are associated with human diseases and result in an accumulation of incorrectly processed oligosaccharides which are not, or only poor, substrates for a range of downstream enzymes. To examine the effect of the glucosidase II mutation in Dictyostelium, we employed off-line LC-MALDI-TOF MS in combination with chemical and enzymatic treatments and MS/MS to analyze the neutral and anionic N-glycans of the mutant as compared to the wild type. The major neutral species were, as expected, of the composition Hex10-11 HexNAc2-3 with one or two terminal glucose residues. Consistent with the block in processing of neutral N-glycans caused by the absence of glucosidase II, fucose was apparently absent from the N-glycans and bisecting N-acetylglucosamine was rare. The major anionic oligosaccharides were sulfated and/or methylphosphorylated forms of Hex8-11 HexNAc2-3 , many of which surprisingly lacked glucose residues entirely. As anionic N-glycans are considered to be mostly associated with lysosomal enzymes in Dictyostelium, we hypothesise that glycosidases present in the acidic compartments may act on the oligosaccharides attached to such slime mould proteins. Furthermore, our chosen analytical approach enabled us, via observation of diagnostic negative-mode MS/MS fragments, to determine the fine structure of the methylphosphorylated and sulfated N-glycans of the M31 glucosidase mutant in their native state.

A galectin from the kuruma shrimp (Marsupenaeus japonicus) functions as an opsonin and promotes bacterial clearance from hemolymph

Galectins are a lectin family characterized by a conserved sequence motif in the carbohydrate recognition domain, which preferential binds to galactosyl moieties. However, few studies about the biological roles of galectins in invertebrates have been reported except for the galectin (CvGal1) from the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Furthermore, galectins have been described in only a few crustacean species, and no functional studies have been reported so far. In this study, we identified and functionally characterized a galectin from the kuruma shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus, which we designated MjGal. Upon Vibrio anguillarum challenge, expression of MjGal was up-regulated mostly in hemocytes and hepatopancreas, and the protein bound to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria through the recognition of lipoteichoic acid (LTA) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), respectively. By also binding to the shrimp hemocyte surface, MjGal functions as an opsonin for microbial pathogens, promoting their phagocytosis. Further, as shown by RNA interference, MjGal participates in clearance of bacteria from circulation, and thereby contributes to the shrimp’s immune defense against infectious challenge. Elucidation of functional and mechanistic aspects of shrimp immunity will enable the development of novel strategies for intervention in infectious diseases currently affecting the shrimp farming industry worldwide.

Humanized HLA-DR4 mice fed with the protozoan pathogen of oysters Perkinsus marinus (Dermo) do not develop noticeable pathology but elicit systemic immunity

Perkinsus marinus (Phylum Perkinsozoa) is a marine protozoan parasite responsible for “Dermo” disease in oysters, which has caused extensive damage to the shellfish industry and estuarine environment. The infection prevalence has been estimated in some areas to be as high as 100%, often causing death of infected oysters within 1–2 years post-infection. Human consumption of the parasites via infected oysters is thus likely to occur, but to our knowledge the effect of oral consumption of P. marinus has not been investigated in humans or other mammals. To address the question we used humanized mice expressing HLA-DR4 molecules and lacking expression of mouse MHC-class II molecules (DR4.EA⁰) in such a way that CD4 T cell responses are solely restricted by the human HLA-DR4 molecule. The DR4.EA⁰ mice did not develop diarrhea or any detectable pathology in the gastrointestinal tract or lungs following single or repeated feedings with live P. marinus parasites. Furthermore, lymphocyte populations in the gut associated lymphoid tissue and spleen were unaltered in the parasite-fed mice ruling out local or systemic inflammation. Notably, naïve DR4.EA⁰ mice had antibodies (IgM and IgG) reacting against P. marinus parasites whereas parasite specific T cell responses were undetectable. Feeding with P. marinus boosted the antibody responses and stimulated specific cellular (IFNγ) immunity to the oyster parasite. Our data indicate the ability of P. marinus parasites to induce systemic immunity in DR4.EA⁰ mice without causing noticeable pathology, and support rationale grounds for using genetically engineered P. marinus as a new oral vaccine platform to induce systemic immunity against infectious agents.

The galectin CvGal1 from the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) binds to blood group A oligosaccharides on the hemocyte surface

The galectin CvGal1 from the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica), which possesses four tandemly arrayed carbohydrate recognition domains, was previously shown to display stronger binding to galactosamine and N-acetylgalactosamine relative to d-galactose. CvGal1 expressed by phagocytic cells is "hijacked" by the parasite Perkinsus marinus to enter the host, where it proliferates and causes systemic infection and death. In this study, a detailed glycan array analysis revealed that CvGal1 preferentially recognizes type 2 blood group A oligosaccharides. Homology modeling of the protein and its oligosaccharide ligands supported this preference over type 1 blood group A and B oligosaccharides. The CvGal ligand models were further validated by binding, inhibition, and competitive binding studies of CvGal1 and ABH-specific monoclonal antibodies with intact and deglycosylated glycoproteins, hemocyte extracts, and intact hemocytes and by surface plasmon resonance analysis. A parallel glycomic study carried out on oyster hemocytes (Kurz, S., Jin, C., Hykollari, A., Gregorich, D., Giomarelli, B., Vasta, G. R., Wilson, I. B. H., and Paschinger, K. (2013) J. Biol. Chem. 288) determined the structures of oligosaccharides recognized by CvGal1. Proteomic analysis of the hemocyte glycoproteins identified β-integrin and dominin as CvGal1 "self"-ligands. Despite strong CvGal1 binding to P. marinus trophozoites, no binding of ABH blood group antibodies was observed. Thus, parasite glycans structurally distinct from the blood group A oligosaccharides on the hemocyte surface may function as potentially effective ligands for CvGal1. We hypothesize that carbohydrate-based mimicry resulting from the host/parasite co-evolution facilitates CvGal1-mediated cross-linking to β-integrin, located on the hemocyte surface, leading to cell activation, phagocytosis, and host infection.