Cytokine-Like 1 Is a Novel Proangiogenic Factor Secreted by and Mediating Functions of Endothelial Progenitor Cells

RATIONALE

Endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) or late blood outgrowth endothelial cells can be isolated from human cord or peripheral blood, display properties of endothelial progenitors, home into ischemic tissues and support neovascularization in ischemic disease models.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the functions of CYTL1 (cytokine-like 1), a factor we found preferentially produced by ECFCs, in regard of vessel formation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We show by transcriptomic analysis that ECFCs are distinguished from endothelial cells of the vessel wall by production of high amounts of CYTL1. Modulation of expression demonstrates that the factor confers increased angiogenic sprouting capabilities to ECFCs and can also trigger sprouting of mature endothelial cells. The data further display that CYTL1 can be induced by hypoxia and that it functions largely independent of VEGF-A (vascular endothelial growth factor-A). By recombinant production of CYTL1 we confirm that the peptide is indeed a strong proangiogenic factor and induces sprouting in cellular assays and functional vessel formation in animal models comparable to VEGF-A. Mass spectroscopy corroborates that CYTL1 is specifically O-glycosylated on 2 neighboring threonines in the C-terminal part and this modification is important for its proangiogenic bioactivity. Further analyses show that the factor does not upregulate proinflammatory genes and strongly induces several metallothionein genes encoding anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that CYTL1 can mediate proangiogenic functions ascribed to endothelial progenitors such as ECFCs in vivo and may be a candidate to support vessel formation and tissue regeneration in ischemic pathologies.

A General Protein O-Glycosylation Gene Cluster Encodes the Species-Specific Glycan of the Oral Pathogen Tannerella forsythia: O-Glycan Biosynthesis and Immunological Implications

The cell surface of the oral pathogen Tannerella forsythia is heavily glycosylated with a unique, complex decasaccharide that is O-glycosidically linked to the bacterium’s abundant surface (S-) layer, as well as other proteins. The S-layer glycoproteins are virulence factors of T. forsythia and there is evidence that protein O-glycosylation underpins the bacterium’s pathogenicity. To elucidate the protein O-glycosylation pathway, genes suspected of encoding pathway components were first identified in the genome sequence of the ATCC 43037 type strain, revealing a 27-kb gene cluster that was shown to be polycistronic. Using a gene deletion approach targeted at predicted glycosyltransferases (Gtfs) and methyltransferases encoded in this gene cluster, in combination with mass spectrometry of the protein-released O-glycans, we show that the gene cluster encodes the species-specific part of the T. forsythia ATCC 43037 decasaccharide and that this is assembled step-wise on a pentasaccharide core. The core was previously proposed to be conserved within the Bacteroidetes phylum, to which T. forsythia is affiliated, and its biosynthesis is encoded elsewhere on the bacterial genome. Next, to assess the prevalence of protein O-glycosylation among Tannerella sp., the publicly available genome sequences of six T. forsythia strains were compared, revealing gene clusters of similar size and organization as found in the ATCC 43037 type strain. The corresponding region in the genome of a periodontal health-associated Tannerella isolate showed a different gene composition lacking most of the genes commonly found in the pathogenic strains. Finally, we investigated whether differential cell surface glycosylation impacts T. forsythia’s overall immunogenicity. Release of proinflammatory cytokines by dendritic cells (DCs) upon stimulation with defined Gtf-deficient mutants of the type strain was measured and their T cell-priming potential post-stimulation was explored. This revealed that the O-glycan is pivotal to modulating DC effector functions, with the T. forsythia-specific glycan portion suppressing and the pentasaccharide core activating a Th17 response. We conclude that complex protein O-glycosylation is a hallmark of pathogenic T. forsythia strains and propose it as a valuable target for the design of novel antimicrobials against periodontitis.

A pseudaminic acid or a legionaminic acid derivative transferase is strain-specifically implicated in the general protein O-glycosylation system of the periodontal pathogen Tannerella forsythia

The occurrence of nonulosonic acids in bacteria is wide-spread and linked to pathogenicity. However, the knowledge of cognate nonulosonic acid transferases is scarce. In the periodontopathogen Tannerella forsythia, several proposed virulence factors carry strain-specifically either a pseudaminic or a legionaminic acid derivative as terminal sugar on an otherwise structurally identical, protein-bound oligosaccharide. This study aims to shed light on the transfer of either nonulosonic acid derivative on a proximal N-acetylmannosaminuronic acid residue within the O-glycan structure, exemplified with the bacterium's abundant S-layer glycoproteins. Bioinformatic analyses provided the candidate genes Tanf_01245 (strain ATCC 43037) and TFUB4_00887 (strain UB4), encoding a putative pseudaminic and a legionaminic acid derivative transferase, respectively. These transferases have identical C-termini and contain motifs typical of glycosyltransferases (DXD) and bacterial sialyltransferases (D/E-D/E-G and HP). They share homology to type B glycosyltransferases and TagB, an enzyme catalyzing glycerol transfer to an N-acetylmannosamine residue in teichoic acid biosynthesis. Analysis of a cellular pool of nucleotide-activated sugars confirmed the presence of the CMP-activated nonulosonic acid derivatives, which are most likely serving as substrates for the corresponding transferase. Single gene knock-out mutants targeted at either transferase were analyzed for S-layer O-glycan composition by ESI-MS, confirming the loss of the nonulosonic acid derivative. Cross-complementation of the mutants with the nonnative nonulosonic acid transferase was not successful indicating high stringency of the enzymes. This study identified plausible candidates for a pseudaminic and a legionaminic acid derivative transferase; these may serve as valuable tools for engineering of novel sialoglycoconjugates.

Tannerella forsythia strains display different cell-surface nonulosonic acids: biosynthetic pathway characterization and first insight into biological implications

Tannerella forsythia is an anaerobic, Gram-negative periodontal pathogen. A unique O-linked oligosaccharide decorates the bacterium's cell surface proteins and was shown to modulate the host immune response. In our study, we investigated the biosynthesis of the nonulosonic acid (NulO) present at the terminal position of this glycan. A bioinformatic analysis of T. forsythia genomes revealed a gene locus for the synthesis of pseudaminic acid (Pse) in the type strain ATCC 43037 while strains FDC 92A2 and UB4 possess a locus for the synthesis of legionaminic acid (Leg) instead. In contrast to the NulO in ATCC 43037, which has been previously identified as a Pse derivative (5-N-acetimidoyl-7-N-glyceroyl-3,5,7,9-tetradeoxy-l-glycero-l-manno-NulO), glycan analysis of strain UB4 performed in this study indicated a 350-Da, possibly N-glycolyl Leg (3,5,7,9-tetradeoxy-d-glycero-d-galacto-NulO) derivative with unknown C5,7 N-acyl moieties. We have expressed, purified and characterized enzymes of both NulO pathways to confirm these genes’ functions. Using capillary electrophoresis (CE), CE–mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy, our studies revealed that Pse biosynthesis in ATCC 43037 essentially follows the UDP-sugar route described in Helicobacter pylori, while the pathway in strain FDC 92A2 corresponds to Leg biosynthesis in Campylobacter jejuni involving GDP-sugar intermediates. To demonstrate that the NulO biosynthesis enzymes are functional in vivo, we created knockout mutants resulting in glycans lacking the respective NulO. Compared to the wild-type strains, the mutants exhibited significantly reduced biofilm formation on mucin-coated surfaces, suggestive of their involvement in host-pathogen interactions or host survival. This study contributes to understanding possible biological roles of bacterial NulOs.

Genome Analysis and Characterisation of the Exopolysaccharide Produced by Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum 35624™

The Bifibobacterium longum subsp. longum35624^™ strain (formerly named Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis) is a well described probiotic with clinical efficacy in Irritable Bowel Syndrome clinical trials and induces immunoregulatory effects in mice and in humans. This paper presents (a) the genome sequence of the organism allowing the assignment to its correct subspeciation longum; (b) a comparative genome assessment with other B. longum strains and (c) the molecular structure of the 35624 exopolysaccharide (EPS₆₂₄). Comparative genome analysis of the 35624 strain with other B. longum strains determined that the sub-speciation of the strain is longum and revealed the presence of a 35624-specific gene cluster, predicted to encode the biosynthetic machinery for EPS₆₂₄. Following isolation and acid treatment of the EPS, its chemical structure was determined using gas and liquid chromatography for sugar constituent and linkage analysis, electrospray and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry for sequencing and NMR. The EPS consists of a branched hexasaccharide repeating unit containing two galactose and two glucose moieties, galacturonic acid and the unusual sugar 6-deoxy-L-talose. These data demonstrate that the B. longum35624 strain has specific genetic features, one of which leads to the generation of a characteristic exopolysaccharide.

"Hypermethylation" of anthranilic acid-labeled sugars confers the selectivity required for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Analysis of the monosaccharides of complex carbohydrates is often performed by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Unfortunately, methylated sugars, unusual amino- or deoxysugars and incomplete hydrolysis can lead to erroneous assignments of peaks. Here, we demonstrate that a volatile buffer system is suitable for the separation of anthranilic acid labeled sugars. It allows off-line examination of peaks by electrospray mass spectrometry. Approaches towards on-line mass spectrometric detection using reversed-phase or porous graphitic carbon columns fell short of achieving sufficient separation of the relevant isobaric sugars. Adequate chromatographic performance for isomeric sugars was achieved with reversed-phase chromatography of "hyper"-methylated anthranilic acid-labeled monosaccharides. Deuteromethyl iodide facilitates the discovery of naturally methylated sugars and identification of their parent monosaccharide as demonstrated with N-glycans of the snail Achatina fulica, where two thirds of the galactoses and a quarter of the mannoses were methylated.

Isomer-Specific Analysis of Released N-Glycans by LC-ESI MS/MS with Porous Graphitized Carbon

The combination of porous graphitized carbon (PGC) liquid chromatography (LC) with mass spectrometric (MS) detection probably constitutes the most elaborate single stage analysis for isomer-specific N-glycan analysis. Here, we describe sample preparation and analysis procedures for the identification of released N-glycans using PGC-LC-ESI-MS and MS/MS.

Proteolytic and N-glycan processing of human α1-antitrypsin expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana

Plants are increasingly being used as an expression system for complex recombinant proteins. However, our limited knowledge of the intrinsic factors that act along the secretory pathway, which may compromise product integrity, renders process design difficult in some cases. Here, we pursued the recombinant expression of the human protease inhibitor α1-antitrypsin (A1AT) in Nicotiana benthamiana. This serum protein undergoes intensive posttranslational modifications. Unusually high levels of recombinant A1AT were expressed in leaves (up to 6 mg g(-1) of leaf material) in two forms: full-length A1AT located in the endoplasmic reticulum displaying inhibitory activity, and secreted A1AT processed in the reactive center loop, thus rendering it unable to interact with target proteinases. We found that the terminal protein processing is most likely a consequence of the intrinsic function of A1AT (i.e. its interaction with proteases [most likely serine proteases] along the secretory pathway). Secreted A1AT carried vacuolar-type paucimannosidic N-glycans generated by the activity of hexosaminidases located in the apoplast/plasma membrane. Notwithstanding, an intensive glycoengineering approach led to secreted A1AT carrying sialylated N-glycan structures largely resembling its serum-derived counterpart. In summary, we elucidate unique insights in plant glycosylation processes and show important aspects of postendoplasmic reticulum protein processing in plants.

UDP-N-acetyl-α-D-galactosamine:polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyl-transferase from the snail Biomphalaria glabrata - substrate specificity and preference of glycosylation sites

O-glycosylation is a widely occurring posttranslational modification of proteins. The glycosylation status of a specific site may influence the location, activity and function of a protein. The initiating enzyme of mucin-type O-glycosylation is UDP-GalNAc:polypeptide GalNAc transferase (ppGalNAcT; EC 2.4.1.41). Using electron-transfer dissociation mass spectrometry, ppGalNAcT from the snail Biomphalaria glabrata was characterized regarding its ability to glycosylate threonine and serine residues in different peptide sequence environments. The preferences of the snail enzyme for flanking amino acids of the potential glycosylation site were very similar to vertebrate and insect members of the family. Acceptor sites with adjacent proline residues were highly preferred, while other residues caused less pronounced effects. No specific O-glycosylation consensus sequence was found. The results obtained from synthetic peptides were in good correlation with the observed glycosylation patterns of native peptides and with the order of attachment in a multi-glycosylated peptide. The snail enzyme clearly preferred threonine over serine in the in vitro assays. No significant differences of transfer speed or efficiency could be detected using a mutant of the enzyme lacking the lectin domain. This is the first characterisation of the substrate specificity of a member of the ppGalNAcT family from mollusc origin.

Site-specific analysis of the O-glycosylation of bovine fetuin by electron-transfer dissociation mass spectrometry

Bovine fetuin often finds use as a test model for analytical methods, but the exact occupancy of its O-glycosylation sites has not yet been determined. An obstacle for a closer inspection of the five or six O-glycosylation sites is the close spacing of several sites on the same tryptic peptide. The advent of ion-trap instruments with electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) capability and - for the type of instrument - high resolution prompted us to probe this technology for the investigation of the intricate posttranslational modifications O-glycosylation and phosphorylation. Much information could be obtained by direct-infusion ETD analysis of the fully sialylated tryptic 61-residue peptide harboring 8 hydroxyl amino acids of which four were indeed found to be, if only partially, glycosylated. The middle-down approach allowed recognizing an order of action of O-GalNAc transferase(s). No such hierarchy could be observed for phosphorylation. ETD fragmentation on an ion trap thus allowed in-depth analysis of a large, multiply O-glycosylated peptide, however, only by data accumulation over several minutes by direct infusion of a prefractionated sample. O-glycosylation and phosphorylation sites re-defined and their occupancy including that of N-glycans were defined by this study.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

O-glycosylation of natural or recombinant proteins poses a challenge because of the lack of unambiguous consensus sites, the agglomeration of several O-glycans in close proximity and the lack of efficient O-glycosidases. Even bovine fetuin, a frequently used test glycoprotein for glycosylation analysis, has hitherto not been fully characterized in terms of site occupancy. This gap shall hereby be closed by application of electron-transfer dissociation mass spectroscopy.

Reduced quenching and extraction time for mammalian cells using filtration and syringe extraction

In order to preserve the in vivo metabolite levels of cells, a quenching protocol must be quickly executed to avoid degradation of labile metabolites either chemically or biologically. In the case of mammalian cell cultures cultivated in complex media, a wash step previous to quenching is necessary to avoid contamination of the cell pellet with extracellular metabolites, which could distort the real intracellular concentration of metabolites. This is typically achieved either by one or multiple centrifugation/wash steps which delay the time until quenching (even harsh centrifugation requires several minutes for processing until the cells are quenched) or filtration. In this article, we describe and evaluate a two-step optimized protocol based on fast filtration by use of a vacuum pump for quenching and subsequent extraction of intracellular metabolites from CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) suspension cells, which uses commercially available components. The method allows transfer of washed cells into liquid nitrogen within 10-15s of sampling and recovers the entire extraction solution volume. It also has the advantage to remove residual filter filaments in the final sample, thus preventing damage to separation columns during subsequent MS analysis. Relative to other methods currently used in the literature, the resulting energy charge of intracellular adenosine nucleotides was increased to 0.94 compared to 0.90 with cold PBS quenching or 0.82 with cold methanol/AMBIC quenching.

Characterization of a plant-produced recombinant human secretory IgA with broad neutralizing activity against HIV

Recombinant Secretory IgA (SIgA) complexes have the potential to improve antibody-based passive immunotherapeutic approaches to combat many mucosal pathogens. In this report, we describe the expression, purification and characterization of a human SIgA format of the broadly neutralizing anti-HIV monoclonal antibody (mAb) 2G12, using both transgenic tobacco plants and transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana as expression hosts (P2G12 SIgA). The resulting heterodecameric complexes accumulated in intracellular compartments in leaf tissue, including the vacuole. SIgA complexes could not be detected in the apoplast. Maximum yields of antibody were 15.2 μg/g leaf fresh mass (LFM) in transgenic tobacco and 25 μg/g LFM after transient expression, and assembly of SIgA complexes was superior in transgenic tobacco. Protein L purified antibody specifically bound HIV gp140 and neutralised tier 2 and tier 3 HIV isolates. Glycoanalysis revealed predominantly high mannose structures present on most N-glycosylation sites, with limited evidence for complex glycosylation or processing to paucimannosidic forms. O-glycan structures were not identified. Functionally, P2G12 SIgA, but not IgG, effectively aggregated HIV virions. Binding of P2G12 SIgA was observed to CD209 / DC-SIGN, but not to CD89 / FcalphaR on a monocyte cell line. Furthermore, P2G12 SIgA demonstrated enhanced stability in mucosal secretions in comparison to P2G12 IgG mAb.

Knockout of an endogenous mannosyltransferase increases the homogeneity of glycoproteins produced in Pichia pastoris

The yeast Pichia pastoris is a common host for the recombinant production of biopharmaceuticals, capable of performing posttranslational modifications like glycosylation of secreted proteins. However, the activity of the OCH1 encoded α-1,6-mannosyltransferase triggers hypermannosylation of secreted proteins at great heterogeneity, considerably hampering downstream processing and reproducibility. Horseradish peroxidases are versatile enzymes with applications in diagnostics, bioremediation and cancer treatment. Despite the importance of these enzymes, they are still isolated from plant at low yields with different biochemical properties. Here we show the production of homogeneous glycoprotein species of recombinant horseradish peroxidase by using a P. pastoris platform strain in which OCH1 was deleted. This och1 knockout strain showed a growth impaired phenotype and considerable rearrangements of cell wall components, but nevertheless secreted more homogeneously glycosylated protein carrying mainly Man8 instead of Man10 N-glycans as a dominant core glycan structure at a volumetric productivity of 70% of the wildtype strain.

Interlaboratory study on differential analysis of protein glycosylation by mass spectrometry: the ABRF glycoprotein research multi-institutional study 2012

One of the principal goals of glycoprotein research is to correlate glycan structure and function. Such correlation is necessary in order for one to understand the mechanisms whereby glycoprotein structure elaborates the functions of myriad proteins. The accurate comparison of glycoforms and quantification of glycosites are essential steps in this direction. Mass spectrometry has emerged as a powerful analytical technique in the field of glycoprotein characterization. Its sensitivity, high dynamic range, and mass accuracy provide both quantitative and sequence/structural information. As part of the 2012 ABRF Glycoprotein Research Group study, we explored the use of mass spectrometry and ancillary methodologies to characterize the glycoforms of two sources of human prostate specific antigen (PSA). PSA is used as a tumor marker for prostate cancer, with increasing blood levels used to distinguish between normal and cancer states. The glycans on PSA are believed to be biantennary N-linked, and it has been observed that prostate cancer tissues and cell lines contain more antennae than their benign counterparts. Thus, the ability to quantify differences in glycosylation associated with cancer has the potential to positively impact the use of PSA as a biomarker. We studied standard peptide-based proteomics/glycomics methodologies, including LC-MS/MS for peptide/glycopeptide sequencing and label-free approaches for differential quantification. We performed an interlaboratory study to determine the ability of different laboratories to correctly characterize the differences between glycoforms from two different sources using mass spectrometry methods. We used clustering analysis and ancillary statistical data treatment on the data sets submitted by participating laboratories to obtain a consensus of the glycoforms and abundances. The results demonstrate the relative strengths and weaknesses of top-down glycoproteomics, bottom-up glycoproteomics, and glycomics methods.