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Querci L, Piccioli M, Ciofi-Baffoni S, Banci L. Structural aspects of iron‑sulfur protein biogenesis: An NMR view. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2024; 1871:119786. [PMID: 38901495 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2024.119786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Over the last decade, structural aspects involving iron‑sulfur (Fe/S) protein biogenesis have played an increasingly important role in understanding the high mechanistic complexity of mitochondrial and cytosolic machineries maturing Fe/S proteins. In this respect, solution NMR has had a significant impact because of its ability to monitor transient protein-protein interactions, which are abundant in the networks of pathways leading to Fe/S cluster biosynthesis and transfer, as well as thanks to the developments of paramagnetic NMR in both terms of new methodologies and accurate data interpretation. Here, we review the use of solution NMR in characterizing the structural aspects of human Fe/S proteins and their interactions in the framework of Fe/S protein biogenesis. We will first present a summary of the recent advances that have been achieved by paramagnetic NMR and then we will focus our attention on the role of solution NMR in the field of human Fe/S protein biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Querci
- Magnetic Resonance Center CERM, University of Florence, Via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy; Department of Chemistry, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia 3, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy
| | - Mario Piccioli
- Magnetic Resonance Center CERM, University of Florence, Via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy; Department of Chemistry, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia 3, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy
| | - Simone Ciofi-Baffoni
- Magnetic Resonance Center CERM, University of Florence, Via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy; Department of Chemistry, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia 3, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy.
| | - Lucia Banci
- Magnetic Resonance Center CERM, University of Florence, Via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy; Department of Chemistry, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia 3, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario Risonanze Magnetiche di Metalloproteine (CIRMMP), Via Luigi Sacconi 6, Sesto Fiorentino, 50019 Florence, Italy.
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Want K, D'Autréaux B. Mechanism of mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] cluster biosynthesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2024; 1871:119811. [PMID: 39128597 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2024.119811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 07/13/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
Iron‑sulfur (Fe-S) clusters constitute ancient cofactors that accompany a versatile range of fundamental biological reactions across eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Several cellular pathways exist to coordinate iron acquisition and sulfur mobilization towards a scaffold protein during the tightly regulated synthesis of Fe-S clusters. The mechanism of mitochondrial eukaryotic [2Fe-2S] cluster synthesis is coordinated by the Iron-Sulfur Cluster (ISC) machinery and its aberrations herein have strong implications to the field of disease and medicine which is therefore of particular interest. Here, we describe our current knowledge on the step-by-step mechanism leading to the production of mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] clusters while highlighting the recent developments in the field alongside the challenges that are yet to be overcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Want
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Benoit D'Autréaux
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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Olivieri P, Zupok A, Yildiz T, Oltmanns J, Lehmann A, Sokolowska E, Skirycz A, Schünemann V, Leimkühler S. TusA influences Fe-S cluster assembly and iron homeostasis in E. coli by reducing the translation efficiency of Fur. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0055624. [PMID: 38916309 PMCID: PMC11302051 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00556-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024] Open
Abstract
All sulfur transfer pathways have generally a l-cysteine desulfurase as an initial sulfur-mobilizing enzyme in common, which serves as a sulfur donor for the biosynthesis of numerous sulfur-containing biomolecules in the cell. In Escherichia coli, the housekeeping l-cysteine desulfurase IscS has several interaction partners, which bind at different sites of the protein. So far, the interaction sites of IscU, Fdx, CyaY, and IscX involved in iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster assembly have been mapped, in addition to TusA, which is required for molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis and mnm5s2U34 tRNA modifications, and ThiI, which is involved in thiamine biosynthesis and s4U8 tRNA modifications. Previous studies predicted that the sulfur acceptor proteins bind to IscS one at a time. E. coli TusA has, however, been suggested to be involved in Fe-S cluster assembly, as fewer Fe-S clusters were detected in a ∆tusA mutant. The basis for this reduction in Fe-S cluster content is unknown. In this work, we investigated the role of TusA in iron-sulfur cluster assembly and iron homeostasis. We show that the absence of TusA reduces the translation of fur, thereby leading to pleiotropic cellular effects, which we dissect in detail in this study.IMPORTANCEIron-sulfur clusters are evolutionarily ancient prosthetic groups. The ferric uptake regulator plays a major role in controlling the expression of iron homeostasis genes in bacteria. We show that a ∆tusA mutant is impaired in the assembly of Fe-S clusters and accumulates iron. TusA, therefore, reduces fur mRNA translation leading to pleiotropic cellular effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Olivieri
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Arkadiuz Zupok
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Tugba Yildiz
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jonathan Oltmanns
- Department of Physics, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Angelika Lehmann
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Ewelina Sokolowska
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Skirycz
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Volker Schünemann
- Department of Physics, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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Olivieri P, Klabes M, Crack JC, Lehmann A, Bennett SP, Le Brun NE, Leimkühler S. Binding of IscU and TusA to different but competing sites of IscS influences the activity of IscS and directs sulfur to the respective biomolecular synthesis pathway. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0094924. [PMID: 38980029 PMCID: PMC11302665 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00949-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
All sulfur transfer pathways generally have in common an l-cysteine desulfurase as the initial sulfur-mobilizing enzyme, which serves as a sulfur donor for the biosynthesis of numerous sulfur-containing biomolecules in the cell. In Escherichia coli, the housekeeping l-cysteine desulfurase IscS functions as a hub for sulfur transfer through interactions with several partner proteins, which bind at different sites on IscS. So far, the interaction sites of IscU, Fdx, CyaY, and IscX involved in iron sulfur (Fe-S) cluster assembly, TusA, required for molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis and mnm5s2U34 transfer RNA (tRNA) modifications, and ThiI, involved in both the biosynthesis of thiamine and s4U8 tRNA modifications, have been mapped. Previous studies have suggested that IscS partner proteins bind only one at a time, with the exception of Fe-S cluster assembly, which involves the formation of a ternary complex involving IscS, IscU, and one of CyaY, Fdx, or IscX. Here, we show that the affinity of TusA for IscS is similar to but lower than that of IscU and that these proteins compete for binding to IscS. We show that heterocomplexes involving the IscS dimer and single IscU and TusA molecules are readily formed and that binding of both TusA and IscU to IscS affects its l-cysteine desulfurase activity. A model is proposed in which the delivery of sulfur to different sulfur-requiring pathways is controlled by sulfur acceptor protein levels, IscS-binding affinities, and acceptor protein-modulated IscS desulfurase activity.IMPORTANCEIron-sulfur clusters are evolutionarily ancient prosthetic groups. The housekeeping l-cysteine desulfurase IscS functions as a central core for sulfur transfer through interactions with several partner proteins, which bind at different sites on each IscS monomer with different affinities and partially overlapping binding sites. We show that heterocomplexes involving the IscS dimer and single IscU and TusA molecules at each site of the dimer are formed, thereby influencing the activity of IscS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Olivieri
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Moritz Klabes
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jason C. Crack
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Angelika Lehmann
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Sophie P. Bennett
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Nick E. Le Brun
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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Numata Y, Kikuchi Y, Sato T, Okamoto-Shibayama K, Ando Y, Miyai-Murai Y, Kokubu E, Ishihara K. Novel transcriptional regulator OxtR1 regulates potential ferrodoxin in response to oxygen stress in Treponema denticola. Anaerobe 2024; 87:102852. [PMID: 38614291 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2024.102852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Treponema denticola has been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic periodontitis. Previously, we reported that the potential transcriptional regulator TDE_0259 (oxtR1) is upregulated in the bacteriocin ABC transporter gene-deficient mutant. OxtR1 may regulate genes to adapt to environmental conditions during colonization; however, the exact role of the gene in T. denticola has not been reported. Therefore, we investigated its function using an oxtR1-deficient mutant. METHODS The growth rates of the wild-type and oxtR1 mutant were monitored under anaerobic conditions; their antibacterial agent susceptibility and gene expression were assessed using a liquid dilution assay and DNA microarray, respectively. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay was performed to investigate the binding of OxtR1 to promoter regions. RESULTS The growth rate of the bacterium was accelerated by the inactivation of oxtR1, and the mutant exhibited an increased minimum inhibitory concentration against ofloxacin. We observed a relative increase in the expression of genes associated with potential ferrodoxin (TDE_0260), flavodoxin, ABC transporters, heat-shock proteins, DNA helicase, iron compounds, and lipoproteins in the mutant. OxtR1 expression increased upon oxygen exposure, and oxtR1 complementation suppressed the expression of potential ferrodoxin. Our findings also suggested that OxtR1 binds to a potential promoter region of the TDE_0259-260 operon. Moreover, the mutant showed a marginal yet significantly faster growth rate than the wild-type strain under H2O2 exposure. CONCLUSION The oxygen-sensing regulator OxtR1 plays a role in regulating the expression of a potential ferrodoxin, which may contribute to the response of T. denticola to oxygen-induced stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumi Numata
- Department of Crown and Bridge Prosthodontics, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Kikuchi
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Dental College, 2-1-14 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan; Oral Health Science Center, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Toru Sato
- Department of Crown and Bridge Prosthodontics, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Kazuko Okamoto-Shibayama
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Dental College, 2-1-14 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan; Oral Health Science Center, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Yutaro Ando
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Dental College, 2-1-14 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan; Oral Health Science Center, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Yuri Miyai-Murai
- Department of Crown and Bridge Prosthodontics, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Eitoyo Kokubu
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Dental College, 2-1-14 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan; Oral Health Science Center, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Ishihara
- Department of Microbiology, Tokyo Dental College, 2-1-14 Kanda-Misakicho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan; Oral Health Science Center, Tokyo Dental College, 2-9-18 Kanda-Misakicho Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-0061, Japan.
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Hasnat MA, Leimkühler S. Shared functions of Fe-S cluster assembly and Moco biosynthesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2024; 1871:119731. [PMID: 38631442 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2024.119731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Molybdenum cofactor (Moco) biosynthesis is a complex process that involves the coordinated function of several proteins. In the recent years it has become evident that the availability of Fe-S clusters play an important role for the biosynthesis of Moco. First, the MoaA protein binds two [4Fe-4S] clusters per monomer. Second, the expression of the moaABCDE and moeAB operons is regulated by FNR, which senses the availability of oxygen via a functional [4Fe-4S] cluster. Finally, the conversion of cyclic pyranopterin monophosphate to molybdopterin requires the availability of the L-cysteine desulfurase IscS, which is an enzyme involved in the transfer of sulfur to various acceptor proteins with a main role in the assembly of Fe-S clusters. In this review, we dissect the dependence of the production of active molybdoenzymes in detail, starting from the regulation of gene expression and further explaining sulfur delivery and Fe-S cluster insertion into target enzymes. Further, Fe-S cluster assembly is also linked to iron availability. While the abundance of selected molybdoenzymes is largely decreased under iron-limiting conditions, we explain that the expression of the genes is dependent on an active FNR protein. FNR is a very important transcription factor that represents the master-switch for the expression of target genes in response to anaerobiosis. Moco biosynthesis is further directly dependent on the presence of ArcA and also on an active Fur protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Abrar Hasnat
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, Karl-Liebknecht Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- University of Potsdam, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Department of Molecular Enzymology, Karl-Liebknecht Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany.
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Schulz V, Freibert SA, Boss L, Mühlenhoff U, Stehling O, Lill R. Mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] ferredoxins: new functions for old dogs. FEBS Lett 2023; 597:102-121. [PMID: 36443530 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Ferredoxins (FDXs) comprise a large family of iron-sulfur proteins that shuttle electrons from NADPH and FDX reductases into diverse biological processes. This review focuses on the structure, function and specificity of mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] FDXs that are related to bacterial FDXs due to their endosymbiotic inheritance. Their classical function in cytochrome P450-dependent steroid transformations was identified around 1960, and is exemplified by mammalian FDX1 (aka adrenodoxin). Thirty years later the essential function in cellular Fe/S protein biogenesis was discovered for the yeast mitochondrial FDX Yah1 that is additionally crucial for the formation of haem a and ubiquinone CoQ6 . In mammals, Fe/S protein biogenesis is exclusively performed by the FDX1 paralog FDX2, despite the high structural similarity of both proteins. Recently, additional and specific roles of human FDX1 in haem a and lipoyl cofactor biosyntheses were described. For lipoyl synthesis, FDX1 transfers electrons to the radical S-adenosyl methionine-dependent lipoyl synthase to kickstart its radical chain reaction. The high target specificity of the two mammalian FDXs is contained within small conserved sequence motifs, that upon swapping change the target selection of these electron donors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinzent Schulz
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany.,Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie Synmikro, Marburg, Germany
| | - Sven-A Freibert
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany.,Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie Synmikro, Marburg, Germany
| | - Linda Boss
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany.,Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie Synmikro, Marburg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Mühlenhoff
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany.,Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie Synmikro, Marburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Stehling
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany.,Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie Synmikro, Marburg, Germany
| | - Roland Lill
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany.,Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie Synmikro, Marburg, Germany
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Marengo M, Fissore A, Oliaro-Bosso S, Adinolfi S, Pastore A. Towards a metabolomic approach to investigate iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis. IUBMB Life 2022; 74:715-722. [PMID: 35474632 PMCID: PMC9325406 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Iron–sulfur clusters are prosthetic groups that are assembled on their acceptor proteins through a complex machine centered on a desulfurase enzyme and a transient scaffold protein. Studies to establish the mechanism of cluster formation have so far used either in vitro or in vivo methods, which have often resulted in contrasting or non‐comparable results. We suggest, here, an alternative approach to study the enzymatic reaction, that is based on the combination of genetically engineered bacterial strains depleted of specific components, and the detection of the enzymatic kinetics in cellular extracts through metabolomics. Our data prove that this ex vivo approach closely reproduces the in vitro results while retaining the full complexity of the system. We demonstrate that co‐presence of bacterial frataxin and iron is necessary to observe an inhibitory effect of the enzymatic activity of bacterial frataxin. Our approach provides a new powerful tool for the study of iron–sulfur cluster biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Marengo
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alex Fissore
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Salvatore Adinolfi
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, The Maurice Wohl Institute, King's College London, Denmark Hill Campus, London, UK
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Mitochondrial De Novo Assembly of Iron–Sulfur Clusters in Mammals: Complex Matters in a Complex That Matters. INORGANICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/inorganics10030031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron–sulfur clusters (Fe–S or ISC) are essential cofactors that function in a wide range of biological pathways. In mammalian cells, Fe–S biosynthesis primarily relies on mitochondria and involves a concerted group of evolutionary-conserved proteins forming the ISC pathway. In the early stage of the ISC pathway, the Fe–S core complex is required for de novo assembly of Fe–S. In humans, the Fe–S core complex comprises the cysteine desulfurase NFS1, the scaffold protein ISCU2, frataxin (FXN), the ferredoxin FDX2, and regulatory/accessory proteins ISD11 and Acyl Carrier Protein (ACP). In recent years, the field has made significant advances in unraveling the structure of the Fe–S core complex and the mechanism underlying its function. Herein, we review the key recent findings related to the Fe–S core complex and its components. We highlight some of the unanswered questions and provide a model of the Fe–S assembly within the complex. In addition, we briefly touch on the genetic diseases associated with mutations in the Fe–S core complex components.
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10
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Puglisi R. Protein Mutations and Stability, a Link with Disease: The Case Study of Frataxin. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10020425. [PMID: 35203634 PMCID: PMC8962269 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10020425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein mutations may lead to pathologies by causing protein misfunction or propensity to degradation. For this reason, several studies have been performed over the years to determine the capability of proteins to retain their native conformation under stress condition as well as factors to explain protein stabilization and the mechanisms behind unfolding. In this review, we explore the paradigmatic example of frataxin, an iron binding protein involved in Fe–S cluster biogenesis, and whose impairment causes a neurodegenerative disease called Friedreich’s Ataxia (FRDA). We summarize what is known about most common point mutations identified so far in heterozygous FRDA patients, their effects on frataxin structure and function and the consequences of its binding with partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Puglisi
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the Wohl Institute of King's College London, London SE59RT, UK
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11
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Uzarska MA, Grochowina I, Soldek J, Jelen M, Schilke B, Marszalek J, Craig EA, Dutkiewicz R. During FeS cluster biogenesis, ferredoxin and frataxin use overlapping binding sites on yeast cysteine desulfurase Nfs1. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101570. [PMID: 35026224 PMCID: PMC8888459 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In mitochondria, cysteine desulfurase (Nfs1) plays a central role in the biosynthesis of iron-sulfur (FeS) clusters, cofactors critical for activity of many cellular proteins. Nfs1 functions both as a sulfur donor for cluster assembly and as a binding platform for other proteins functioning in the process. These include not only the dedicated scaffold protein (Isu1) on which FeS clusters are synthesized but also accessory FeS cluster biogenesis proteins frataxin (Yfh1) and ferredoxin (Yah1). Yfh1 has been shown to activate cysteine desulfurase enzymatic activity, whereas Yah1 supplies electrons for the persulfide reduction. While Yfh1 interaction with Nfs1 is well understood, the Yah1-Nfs1 interaction is not. Here, based on the results of biochemical experiments involving purified WT and variant proteins, we report that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Yah1 and Yfh1 share an evolutionary conserved interaction site on Nfs1. Consistent with this notion, Yah1 and Yfh1 can each displace the other from Nfs1 but are inefficient competitors when a variant with an altered interaction site is used. Thus, the binding mode of Yah1 and Yfh1 interacting with Nfs1 in mitochondria of S. cerevisiae resembles the mutually exclusive binding of ferredoxin and frataxin with cysteine desulfurase reported for the bacterial FeS cluster assembly system. Our findings are consistent with the generally accepted scenario that the mitochondrial FeS cluster assembly system was inherited from bacterial ancestors of mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta A Uzarska
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Igor Grochowina
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Joanna Soldek
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Marcin Jelen
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Brenda Schilke
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jaroslaw Marszalek
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland; Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
| | - Elizabeth A Craig
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
| | - Rafal Dutkiewicz
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland.
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Abstract
Building iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters and assembling Fe-S proteins are essential actions for life on Earth. The three processes that sustain life, photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, and respiration, require Fe-S proteins. Genes coding for Fe-S proteins can be found in nearly every sequenced genome. Fe-S proteins have a wide variety of functions, and therefore, defective assembly of Fe-S proteins results in cell death or global metabolic defects. Compared to alternative essential cellular processes, there is less known about Fe-S cluster synthesis and Fe-S protein maturation. Moreover, new factors involved in Fe-S protein assembly continue to be discovered. These facts highlight the growing need to develop a deeper biological understanding of Fe-S cluster synthesis, holo-protein maturation, and Fe-S cluster repair. Here, we outline bacterial strategies used to assemble Fe-S proteins and the genetic regulation of these processes. We focus on recent and relevant findings and discuss future directions, including the proposal of using Fe-S protein assembly as an antipathogen target.
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13
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Hinton TV, Batelu S, Gleason N, Stemmler TL. Molecular characteristics of proteins within the mitochondrial Fe-S cluster assembly complex. Micron 2021; 153:103181. [PMID: 34823116 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2021.103181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Iron-Sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are essential for life, as they are widely utilized in nearly every biochemical pathway. When bound to proteins, Fe-S clusters assist in catalysis, signal recognition, and energy transfer events, as well as additional cellular pathways including cellular respiration and DNA repair and replication. In Eukaryotes, Fe-S clusters are produced through coordinated activity by mitochondrial Iron-Sulfur Cluster (ISC) assembly pathway proteins through direct assembly, or through the production of the activated sulfur substrate used by the Cytosolic Iron-Sulfur Cluster Assembly (CIA) pathway. In the mitochondria, Fe-S cluster assembly is accomplished through the coordinated activity of the ISC pathway protein complex composed of a cysteine desulfurase, a scaffold protein, the accessory ISD11 protein, the acyl carrier protein, frataxin, and a ferredoxin; downstream events that accomplish Fe-S cluster transfer and delivery are driven by additional chaperone/delivery proteins that interact with the ISC assembly complex. Deficiency in human production or activity of Fe-S cluster containing proteins is often detrimental to cell and organism viability. Here we summarize what is known about the structure and functional activities of the proteins involved in the early steps of assembling [2Fe-2S] clusters before they are transferred to proteins devoted to their delivery. Our goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of how the ISC assembly apparatus proteins interact to make the Fe-S cluster which can be delivered to proteins downstream to the assembly event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiara V Hinton
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Sharon Batelu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Noah Gleason
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Timothy L Stemmler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, 259 Mack Avenue, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
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14
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Benoit SL, Agudelo S, Maier RJ. A two-hybrid system reveals previously uncharacterized protein-protein interactions within the Helicobacter pylori NIF iron-sulfur maturation system. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10794. [PMID: 34031459 PMCID: PMC8144621 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90003-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins play essential roles in all living organisms. The gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori relies exclusively on the NIF system for biosynthesis and delivery of Fe-S clusters. Previously characterized components include two essential proteins, NifS (cysteine desulfurase) and NifU (scaffold protein), and a dispensable Fe-S carrier, Nfu. Among 38 proteins previously predicted to coordinate Fe-S clusters, two proteins, HP0207 (a member of the Nbp35/ApbC ATPase family) and HP0277 (previously annotated as FdxA, a member of the YfhL ferredoxin-like family) were further studied, using a bacterial two-hybrid system approach to identify protein-protein interactions. ApbC was found to interact with 30 proteins, including itself, NifS, NifU, Nfu and FdxA, and alteration of the conserved ATPase motif in ApbC resulted in a significant (50%) decrease in the number of protein interactions, suggesting the ATpase activity is needed for some ApbC-target protein interactions. FdxA was shown to interact with 21 proteins, including itself, NifS, ApbC and Nfu, however no interactions between NifU and FdxA were detected. By use of cross-linking studies, a 51-kDa ApbC-Nfu heterodimer complex was identified. Attempts to generate apbC chromosomal deletion mutants in H. pylori were unsuccessful, therefore indirectly suggesting the hp0207 gene is essential. In contrast, mutants in the fdxA gene were obtained, albeit only in one parental strain (26695). Taken together, these results suggest both ApbC and FdxA are important players in the H. pylori NIF maturation system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane L Benoit
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Georgia, 30602, Athens, Georgia.,Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, The University of Georgia, 30602, Athens, Georgia
| | - Stephanie Agudelo
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Georgia, 30602, Athens, Georgia
| | - Robert J Maier
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Georgia, 30602, Athens, Georgia. .,Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, The University of Georgia, 30602, Athens, Georgia.
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15
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Identification of an Intermediate Form of Ferredoxin That Binds Only Iron Suggests That Conversion to Holo-Ferredoxin Is Independent of the ISC System in Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.03153-20. [PMID: 33712431 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03153-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Escherichia coli [2Fe-2S]-ferredoxin and other ISC proteins encoded by the iscRSUA-hscBA-fdx-iscX (isc) operon are responsible for the assembly of iron-sulfur clusters. It is proposed that ferredoxin (Fdx) donates electrons from its reduced [2Fe-2S] center to iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis reactions. However, the underlying mechanisms of the [2Fe-2S] cluster assembly in Fdx remain elusive. Here, we report that Fdx preferentially binds iron, but not the [2Fe-2S] cluster, under cold stress conditions (≤16°C). The iron binding in Fdx is characterized by a unique absorption peak at 320 nm based on UV-visible spectroscopy. In addition, the iron-binding form of Fdx could be converted to the [2Fe-2S] cluster-bound form after transferring cold-stressed cells to normal cultivation temperatures above 25°C. In vitro experiments also revealed that Fdx could utilize bound iron to assemble the [2Fe-2S] cluster by itself. Furthermore, inactivation of the genes encoding IscS, IscU, and IscA did not limit [2Fe-2S] cluster assembly in Fdx, which was also observed by inactivating the isc or suf operon, indicating that iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis in Fdx arose from a unique pathway in E. coli Our results suggest that the intracellular assembly of [2Fe-2S] clusters in Fdx is susceptible to environmental temperatures. The iron binding form of Fdx (Fe-Fdx) is a precursor during its maturation to a cluster binding form ([2Fe-2S]-Fdx), and reassembly of the [2Fe-2S] clusters during temperature increases is not strictly reliant on other specific iron donors and scaffold proteins within the Isc or Suf system.IMPORTANCE Fdx is an electron carrier that is required for the maturation of many other iron-sulfur proteins. Its function strictly depends on its [2Fe-2S] center that bonds with the cysteinyl S atoms of four cysteine residues within Fdx. However, the assembly mechanism of the [2Fe-2S] clusters in Fdx remains controversial. This study reports that Fdx fails to form its [2Fe-2S] cluster under cold stress conditions but instead binds a single Fe atom at the cluster binding site. Moreover, when temperatures increase, Fdx can assemble clusters by itself from its iron-only binding form in E. coli cells. The possibility remains that Fdx can effectively accept clusters from multiple sources. Nevertheless, our results suggest that Fdx has a strong iron binding activity that contributes to the assembly of its own [2Fe-2S] cluster and that Fdx acts as a temperature sensor to regulate Isc system-mediated iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis.
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16
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A-type carrier proteins are involved in [4Fe-4S] cluster insertion into the radical SAM protein MoaA for the synthesis of active molybdoenzymes. J Bacteriol 2021; 203:e0008621. [PMID: 33782054 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00086-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are important biological cofactors present in proteins with crucial biological functions, from photosynthesis to DNA repair, gene expression and bioenergetic processes. For the insertion of Fe-S clusters into proteins, A-type carrier proteins have been identified. So far, three of them were characterized in detail in Escherichia coli, namely IscA, SufA and ErpA, which were shown to partially replace each other in their roles in [4Fe-4S] cluster insertion into specific target proteins. To further expand the knowledge of [4Fe-4S] cluster insertion into proteins, we analyzed the complex Fe-S cluster dependent network for the synthesis of the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) and the expression of genes encoding nitrate reductase in E. coli Our studies include the identification of the A-type carrier proteins ErpA and IscA involved in [4Fe-4S] cluster insertion into the S-adenosyl-methionine dependent radical SAM protein MoaA. We show that ErpA and IscA can partially replace each other in their role to provide [4Fe-4S] clusters for MoaA. Since most genes expressing molybdoenzymes are regulated by the transcriptional regulator for fumarate and nitrate reduction (FNR) under anaerobic conditions, we also identified the proteins that are crucial to obtain an active FNR under conditions of nitrate respiration. We show that ErpA is essential for the FNR-dependent expression of the narGHJI operon, a role that cannot be compensated by IscA under the growth conditions tested. SufA does not have a role in Fe-S cluster insertion into MoaA or FNR under anaerobic growth of nitrate respiration, based on low gene expression levels.IMPORTANCEUnderstanding the assembly of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins is relevant to many fields, including nitrogen fixation, photosynthesis, bioenergetics and gene regulation. Still remaining critical gaps in our knowledge are how Fe-S clusters are transferred to their target proteins and how the specificity in this process is achieved, since different forms of Fe-S clusters need to be delivered to structurally highly diverse target proteins. Numerous Fe-S carrier proteins have been identified in prokaryotes like Escherichia coli, including ErpA, IscA, SusA and NfuA. In addition, the diverse Fe-S cluster delivery proteins and their target proteins underlie a complex regulatory network of expression, to ensure that both proteins are synthesized under particular growth conditions.
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17
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Abstract
Iron–sulfur (Fe–S) clusters are protein cofactors of a multitude of enzymes performing essential biological functions. Specialized multi-protein machineries present in all types of organisms support their biosynthesis. These machineries encompass a scaffold protein on which Fe–S clusters are assembled and a cysteine desulfurase that provides sulfur in the form of a persulfide. The sulfide ions are produced by reductive cleavage of the persulfide, which involves specific reductase systems. Several other components are required for Fe–S biosynthesis, including frataxin, a key protein of controversial function and accessory components for insertion of Fe–S clusters in client proteins. Fe–S cluster biosynthesis is thought to rely on concerted and carefully orchestrated processes. However, the elucidation of the mechanisms of their assembly has remained a challenging task due to the biochemical versatility of iron and sulfur and the relative instability of Fe–S clusters. Nonetheless, significant progresses have been achieved in the past years, using biochemical, spectroscopic and structural approaches with reconstituted system in vitro. In this paper, we review the most recent advances on the mechanism of assembly for the founding member of the Fe–S cluster family, the [2Fe2S] cluster that is the building block of all other Fe–S clusters. The aim is to provide a survey of the mechanisms of iron and sulfur insertion in the scaffold proteins by examining how these processes are coordinated, how sulfide is produced and how the dinuclear [2Fe2S] cluster is formed, keeping in mind the question of the physiological relevance of the reconstituted systems. We also cover the latest outcomes on the functional role of the controversial frataxin protein in Fe–S cluster biosynthesis.
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18
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Braymer JJ, Freibert SA, Rakwalska-Bange M, Lill R. Mechanistic concepts of iron-sulfur protein biogenesis in Biology. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2020; 1868:118863. [PMID: 33007329 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2020.118863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe/S) proteins are present in virtually all living organisms and are involved in numerous cellular processes such as respiration, photosynthesis, metabolic reactions, nitrogen fixation, radical biochemistry, protein synthesis, antiviral defense, and genome maintenance. Their versatile functions may go back to the proposed role of their Fe/S cofactors in the origin of life as efficient catalysts and electron carriers. More than two decades ago, it was discovered that the in vivo synthesis of cellular Fe/S clusters and their integration into polypeptide chains requires assistance by complex proteinaceous machineries, despite the fact that Fe/S proteins can be assembled chemically in vitro. In prokaryotes, three Fe/S protein biogenesis systems are known; ISC, SUF, and the more specialized NIF. The former two systems have been transferred by endosymbiosis from bacteria to mitochondria and plastids, respectively, of eukaryotes. In their cytosol, eukaryotes use the CIA machinery for the biogenesis of cytosolic and nuclear Fe/S proteins. Despite the structural diversity of the protein constituents of these four machineries, general mechanistic concepts underlie the complex process of Fe/S protein biogenesis. This review provides a comprehensive and comparative overview of the various known biogenesis systems in Biology, and summarizes their common or diverging molecular mechanisms, thereby illustrating both the conservation and diverse adaptions of these four machineries during evolution and under different lifestyles. Knowledge of these fundamental biochemical pathways is not only of basic scientific interest, but is important for the understanding of human 'Fe/S diseases' and can be used in biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Braymer
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Sven A Freibert
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | | | - Roland Lill
- Institut für Zytobiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany; SYNMIKRO Center for Synthetic Microbiology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
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19
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The Requirement of Inorganic Fe-S Clusters for the Biosynthesis of the Organometallic Molybdenum Cofactor. INORGANICS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/inorganics8070043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are essential protein cofactors. In enzymes, they are present either in the rhombic [2Fe-2S] or the cubic [4Fe-4S] form, where they are involved in catalysis and electron transfer and in the biosynthesis of metal-containing prosthetic groups like the molybdenum cofactor (Moco). Here, we give an overview of the assembly of Fe-S clusters in bacteria and humans and present their connection to the Moco biosynthesis pathway. In all organisms, Fe-S cluster assembly starts with the abstraction of sulfur from l-cysteine and its transfer to a scaffold protein. After formation, Fe-S clusters are transferred to carrier proteins that insert them into recipient apo-proteins. In eukaryotes like humans and plants, Fe-S cluster assembly takes place both in mitochondria and in the cytosol. Both Moco biosynthesis and Fe-S cluster assembly are highly conserved among all kingdoms of life. Moco is a tricyclic pterin compound with molybdenum coordinated through its unique dithiolene group. Moco biosynthesis begins in the mitochondria in a Fe-S cluster dependent step involving radical/S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) chemistry. An intermediate is transferred to the cytosol where the dithiolene group is formed, to which molybdenum is finally added. Further connections between Fe-S cluster assembly and Moco biosynthesis are discussed in detail.
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20
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Puglisi R, Boeri Erba E, Pastore A. A Guide to Native Mass Spectrometry to determine complex interactomes of molecular machines. FEBS J 2020; 287:2428-2439. [PMID: 32142206 PMCID: PMC8647915 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2019] [Revised: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Native mass spectrometry is an emerging technique in biology that gives the possibility to study noncovalently bound complexes with high sensitivity and accuracy. It thus allows the characterization of macromolecular assemblies, assessing their mass and stoichiometries and mapping the interacting surfaces. In this review, we discuss the application of native mass spectrometry to dynamic molecular machines based on multiple weak interactions. In the study of these machines, it is crucial to understand which and under which conditions various complexes form at any time point. We focus on the specific example of the iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis machine because this is an archetype of a dynamic machine that requires very specific and demanding experimental conditions, such as anaerobicity and the need of retaining the fold of marginally folded proteins. We describe the advantages, challenges and current limitations of the technique by providing examples from our own experience and suggesting possible future solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Puglisi
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the Wohl Institute of King’s College LondonUK
| | | | - Annalisa Pastore
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the Wohl Institute of King’s College LondonUK
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21
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Baussier C, Fakroun S, Aubert C, Dubrac S, Mandin P, Py B, Barras F. Making iron-sulfur cluster: structure, regulation and evolution of the bacterial ISC system. Adv Microb Physiol 2020; 76:1-39. [PMID: 32408945 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2020.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Iron sulfur (Fe-S) clusters rank among the most ancient and conserved prosthetic groups. Fe-S clusters containing proteins are present in most, if not all, organisms. Fe-S clusters containing proteins are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, from gene regulation to central metabolism, via gene expression, RNA modification or bioenergetics. Fe-S clusters are built by biogenesis machineries conserved throughout both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. We focus mostly on bacterial ISC machinery, but not exclusively, as we refer to eukaryotic ISC system when it brings significant complementary information. Besides covering the structural and regulatory aspects of Fe-S biogenesis, this review aims to highlight Fe-S biogenesis facets remaining matters of discussion, such as the role of frataxin, or the link between fatty acid metabolism and Fe-S homeostasis. Last, we discuss recent advances on strategies used by different species to make and use Fe-S clusters in changing redox environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corentin Baussier
- Laboratoire de Chimie Bactérienne, CNRS-Aix Marseille Université, UMR 7283, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, Institut de Microbiologie, Bioénergies et Biotechnologies, Marseille, France
| | - Soufyan Fakroun
- Stress Adaptation and Metabolism Unit, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; ERL CNRS 6002, CNRS, Paris, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Corinne Aubert
- Laboratoire de Chimie Bactérienne, CNRS-Aix Marseille Université, UMR 7283, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, Institut de Microbiologie, Bioénergies et Biotechnologies, Marseille, France
| | - Sarah Dubrac
- Stress Adaptation and Metabolism Unit, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; ERL CNRS 6002, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Mandin
- Laboratoire de Chimie Bactérienne, CNRS-Aix Marseille Université, UMR 7283, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, Institut de Microbiologie, Bioénergies et Biotechnologies, Marseille, France
| | - Béatrice Py
- Laboratoire de Chimie Bactérienne, CNRS-Aix Marseille Université, UMR 7283, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, Institut de Microbiologie, Bioénergies et Biotechnologies, Marseille, France
| | - Frédéric Barras
- Stress Adaptation and Metabolism Unit, Department of Microbiology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; ERL CNRS 6002, CNRS, Paris, France
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22
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Fox NG, Yu X, Feng X, Bailey HJ, Martelli A, Nabhan JF, Strain-Damerell C, Bulawa C, Yue WW, Han S. Structure of the human frataxin-bound iron-sulfur cluster assembly complex provides insight into its activation mechanism. Nat Commun 2019; 10:2210. [PMID: 31101807 PMCID: PMC6525205 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-09989-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The core machinery for de novo biosynthesis of iron-sulfur clusters (ISC), located in the mitochondria matrix, is a five-protein complex containing the cysteine desulfurase NFS1 that is activated by frataxin (FXN), scaffold protein ISCU, accessory protein ISD11, and acyl-carrier protein ACP. Deficiency in FXN leads to the loss-of-function neurodegenerative disorder Friedreich's ataxia (FRDA). Here the 3.2 Å resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of the FXN-bound active human complex, containing two copies of the NFS1-ISD11-ACP-ISCU-FXN hetero-pentamer, delineates the interactions of FXN with other component proteins of the complex. FXN binds at the interface of two NFS1 and one ISCU subunits, modifying the local environment of a bound zinc ion that would otherwise inhibit NFS1 activity in complexes without FXN. Our structure reveals how FXN facilitates ISC production through stabilizing key loop conformations of NFS1 and ISCU at the protein-protein interfaces, and suggests how FRDA clinical mutations affect complex formation and FXN activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas G Fox
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
- Merck & Co, 2000 Galloping Hill Rd, Kenilworth, NJ, 07033, USA
| | - Xiaodi Yu
- Discovery Sciences, Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
- SMPS, Janssen Research and Development, 1400 McKean Rd, Spring House, PA, 19477, USA
| | - Xidong Feng
- Discovery Sciences, Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA
| | - Henry J Bailey
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Alain Martelli
- Rare Disease Research Unit, Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 610 Main Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Joseph F Nabhan
- Rare Disease Research Unit, Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 610 Main Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Claire Strain-Damerell
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Christine Bulawa
- Rare Disease Research Unit, Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 610 Main Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Wyatt W Yue
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK.
| | - Seungil Han
- Discovery Sciences, Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., Eastern Point Road, Groton, CT, 06340, USA.
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23
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Rasheed M, Jamshidiha M, Puglisi R, Yan R, Cota E, Pastore A. Structural and functional characterization of a frataxin from a thermophilic organism. FEBS J 2019; 286:495-506. [PMID: 30636112 PMCID: PMC6506826 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Frataxins form an interesting family of iron-binding proteins with an almost unique fold and are highly conserved from bacteria to primates. They have a pivotal role in iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis as regulators of the rates of cluster formation, as it is testified by the fact that frataxin absence is incompatible with life and reduced levels of the protein lead to the recessive neurodegenerative disease Friedreich's ataxia. Despite its importance, the structure of frataxin has been solved only from relatively few species. Here, we discuss the X-ray structure of frataxin from the thermophilic fungus Chaetomium thermophilum, and the characterization of its interactions and dynamics in solution. We show that this eukaryotic frataxin has an unusual variation in the classical frataxin fold: the last helix is shorter than in other frataxins which results in a less symmetrical and compact structure. The stability of this protein is comparable to that of human frataxin, currently the most stable among the frataxin orthologues. We also characterized the iron-binding mode of Ct frataxin and demonstrated that it binds it through a semiconserved negatively charged ridge on the first helix and beta-strand. Moreover, this frataxin is also able to bind the bacterial ortholog of the desulfurase, which is central in iron-sulfur cluster synthesis, and act as its inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masooma Rasheed
- King's College LondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College LondonUK
| | | | - Rita Puglisi
- King's College LondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College LondonUK
| | - Robert Yan
- King's College LondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College LondonUK
| | - Ernesto Cota
- Department of Life SciencesImperial CollegeLondonSouth KensingtonUK
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- King's College LondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College LondonUK
- University of PaviaItaly
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24
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Zupok A, Iobbi-Nivol C, Méjean V, Leimkühler S. The regulation of Moco biosynthesis and molybdoenzyme gene expression by molybdenum and iron in bacteria. Metallomics 2019; 11:1602-1624. [DOI: 10.1039/c9mt00186g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The regulation of the operons involved in Moco biosynthesis is dependent on the availability of Fe–S clusters in the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arkadiusz Zupok
- University of Potsdam
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology
- Molecular Enzymology
- Potsdam-Golm
- Germany
| | - Chantal Iobbi-Nivol
- Aix-Marseille Université
- Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée
- Laboratoire de Bioénergétique et Ingénierie des Protéines
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
- Marseille
| | - Vincent Méjean
- Aix-Marseille Université
- Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée
- Laboratoire de Bioénergétique et Ingénierie des Protéines
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
- Marseille
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- University of Potsdam
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology
- Molecular Enzymology
- Potsdam-Golm
- Germany
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25
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Castro IH, Pignataro MF, Sewell KE, Espeche LD, Herrera MG, Noguera ME, Dain L, Nadra AD, Aran M, Smal C, Gallo M, Santos J. Frataxin Structure and Function. Subcell Biochem 2019; 93:393-438. [PMID: 31939159 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-28151-9_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian frataxin is a small mitochondrial protein involved in iron sulfur cluster assembly. Frataxin deficiency causes the neurodegenerative disease Friedreich's Ataxia. Valuable knowledge has been gained on the structural dynamics of frataxin, metal-ion-protein interactions, as well as on the effect of mutations on protein conformation, stability and internal motions. Additionally, laborious studies concerning the enzymatic reactions involved have allowed for understanding the capability of frataxin to modulate Fe-S cluster assembly function. Remarkably, frataxin biological function depends on its interaction with some proteins to form a supercomplex, among them NFS1 desulfurase and ISCU, the scaffolding protein. By combining multiple experimental tools including high resolution techniques like NMR and X-ray, but also SAXS, crosslinking and mass-spectrometry, it was possible to build a reliable model of the structure of the desulfurase supercomplex NFS1/ACP-ISD11/ISCU/frataxin. In this chapter, we explore these issues showing how the scientific view concerning frataxin structure-function relationships has evolved over the last years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Hugo Castro
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Intituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Dr. Alejandro Paladini Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Junín 956, 1113AAD, C.A.B.A, Argentina
| | - María Florencia Pignataro
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Intituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Dr. Alejandro Paladini Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Junín 956, 1113AAD, C.A.B.A, Argentina
| | - Karl Ellioth Sewell
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Intituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Dr. Alejandro Paladini Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Junín 956, 1113AAD, C.A.B.A, Argentina
| | - Lucía Daniela Espeche
- Departamento de Diagnóstico Genético, Centro Nacional de Genética Médica "Dr. Eduardo E. Castilla"-A.N.L.I.S, Av. Las Heras 2670, C1425ASQ, C.A.B.A, Argentina
| | - María Georgina Herrera
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
| | - Martín Ezequiel Noguera
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Intituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Dr. Alejandro Paladini Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Junín 956, 1113AAD, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, B1876BXD, Bernal, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Liliana Dain
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Departamento de Diagnóstico Genético, Centro Nacional de Genética Médica "Dr. Eduardo E. Castilla"-A.N.L.I.S, Av. Las Heras 2670, C1425ASQ, C.A.B.A, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Daniel Nadra
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina
- Instituto de Química Biológica de la Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (IQUIBICEN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Martín Aran
- Fundación Instituto Leloir E IIBBA-CONICET, Av. Patricias Argentinas 435, C1405BWE, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Clara Smal
- Fundación Instituto Leloir E IIBBA-CONICET, Av. Patricias Argentinas 435, C1405BWE, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana Gallo
- IRBM Science Park S.p.A, Via Pontina km 30,600, 00071, Pomezia, RM, Italy
| | - Javier Santos
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencia Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biomedicina (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160-Ciudad Universitaria, 1428EGA, C.A.B.A, Argentina.
- Intituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológicas, Dr. Alejandro Paladini Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Junín 956, 1113AAD, C.A.B.A, Argentina.
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Tanabe TS, Leimkühler S, Dahl C. The functional diversity of the prokaryotic sulfur carrier protein TusA. Adv Microb Physiol 2019; 75:233-277. [PMID: 31655739 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2019.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Persulfide groups participate in a wide array of biochemical pathways and are chemically very versatile. The TusA protein has been identified as a central element supplying and transferring sulfur as persulfide to a number of important biosynthetic pathways, like molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis or thiomodifications in nucleosides of tRNAs. In recent years, it has furthermore become obvious that this protein is indispensable for the oxidation of sulfur compounds in the cytoplasm. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that different TusA protein variants exists in certain organisms, that have evolved to pursue specific roles in cellular pathways. The specific TusA-like proteins thereby cannot replace each other in their specific roles and are rather specific to one sulfur transfer pathway or shared between two pathways. While certain bacteria like Escherichia coli contain several copies of TusA-like proteins, in other bacteria like Allochromatium vinosum a single copy of TusA is present with an essential role for this organism. Here, we give an overview on the multiple roles of the various TusA-like proteins in sulfur transfer pathways in different organisms to shed light on the remaining mysteries of this versatile protein.
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Metallocluster transactions: dynamic protein interactions guide the biosynthesis of Fe-S clusters in bacteria. Biochem Soc Trans 2018; 46:1593-1603. [PMID: 30381339 DOI: 10.1042/bst20180365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are ubiquitous cofactors present in all domains of life. The chemistries catalyzed by these inorganic cofactors are diverse and their associated enzymes are involved in many cellular processes. Despite the wide range of structures reported for Fe-S clusters inserted into proteins, the biological synthesis of all Fe-S clusters starts with the assembly of simple units of 2Fe-2S and 4Fe-4S clusters. Several systems have been associated with the formation of Fe-S clusters in bacteria with varying phylogenetic origins and number of biosynthetic and regulatory components. All systems, however, construct Fe-S clusters through a similar biosynthetic scheme involving three main steps: (1) sulfur activation by a cysteine desulfurase, (2) cluster assembly by a scaffold protein, and (3) guided delivery of Fe-S units to either final acceptors or biosynthetic enzymes involved in the formation of complex metalloclusters. Another unifying feature on the biological formation of Fe-S clusters in bacteria is that these systems are tightly regulated by a network of protein interactions. Thus, the formation of transient protein complexes among biosynthetic components allows for the direct transfer of reactive sulfur and Fe-S intermediates preventing oxygen damage and reactions with non-physiological targets. Recent studies revealed the importance of reciprocal signature sequence motifs that enable specific protein-protein interactions and consequently guide the transactions between physiological donors and acceptors. Such findings provide insights into strategies used by bacteria to regulate the flow of reactive intermediates and provide protein barcodes to uncover yet-unidentified cellular components involved in Fe-S metabolism.
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Puglisi R, Pastore A. The role of chaperones in iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis. FEBS Lett 2018; 592:4011-4019. [PMID: 30194723 PMCID: PMC6506825 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Iron–sulfur cluster biogenesis is a complex process mediated by numerous proteins among which two from bacteria chaperones, called HscB and HscA in bacteria. They are highly conserved up to eukaryotes and homologous to DnaJ and DnaK, respectively, but with specific differences. As compared with other chaperones, HscB and HscA have escaped attention and relatively little is known about their functions. After briefly introducing the various chaperone families, we reviewed here the current structural and functional knowledge HscA and HscB and on their role in cluster formation. We critically evaluated the literature and highlighted the weak aspects which will require more attention in the future. We sincerely hope that this study will inspire new interest on this important and interesting system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Puglisi
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College London, London, UK.,The Wohl Institute at King's College London, London, UK
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College London, London, UK.,The Wohl Institute at King's College London, London, UK.,Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
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29
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NMR as a Tool to Investigate the Processes of Mitochondrial and Cytosolic Iron-Sulfur Cluster Biosynthesis. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23092213. [PMID: 30200358 PMCID: PMC6205161 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23092213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters, the ubiquitous protein cofactors found in all kingdoms of life, perform a myriad of functions including nitrogen fixation, ribosome assembly, DNA repair, mitochondrial respiration, and metabolite catabolism. The biogenesis of Fe-S clusters is a multi-step process that involves the participation of many protein partners. Recent biophysical studies, involving X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, mass spectrometry (MS), and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), have greatly improved our understanding of these steps. In this review, after describing the biological importance of iron sulfur proteins, we focus on the contributions of NMR spectroscopy has made to our understanding of the structures, dynamics, and interactions of proteins involved in the biosynthesis of Fe-S cluster proteins.
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30
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Cai K, Frederick RO, Tonelli M, Markley JL. Interactions of iron-bound frataxin with ISCU and ferredoxin on the cysteine desulfurase complex leading to Fe-S cluster assembly. J Inorg Biochem 2018; 183:107-116. [PMID: 29576242 PMCID: PMC5951399 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2018.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Frataxin (FXN) is involved in mitochondrial iron‑sulfur (Fe-S) cluster biogenesis and serves to accelerate Fe-S cluster formation. FXN deficiency is associated with Friedreich ataxia, a neurodegenerative disease. We have used a combination of isothermal titration calorimetry and multinuclear NMR spectroscopy to investigate interactions among the components of the biological machine that carries out the assembly of iron‑sulfur clusters in human mitochondria. Our results show that FXN tightly binds a single Fe2+ but not Fe3+. While FXN (with or without bound Fe2+) does not bind the scaffold protein ISCU directly, the two proteins interact mutually when each is bound to the cysteine desulfurase complex ([NFS1]2:[ISD11]2:[Acp]2), abbreviated as (NIA)2, where "N" represents the cysteine desulfurase (NFS1), "I" represents the accessory protein (ISD11), and "A" represents acyl carrier protein (Acp). FXN binds (NIA)2 weakly in the absence of ISCU but more strongly in its presence. Fe2+-FXN binds to the (NIA)2-ISCU2 complex without release of iron. However, upon the addition of both l-cysteine and a reductant (either reduced FDX2 or DTT), Fe2+ is released from FXN as consistent with Fe2+-FXN being the proximal source of iron for Fe-S cluster assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Cai
- National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison and Biochemistry Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Ronnie O Frederick
- National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison and Biochemistry Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Marco Tonelli
- National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison and Biochemistry Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - John L Markley
- National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison and Biochemistry Department, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States.
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31
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Peña-Diaz P, Lukeš J. Fe-S cluster assembly in the supergroup Excavata. J Biol Inorg Chem 2018; 23:521-541. [PMID: 29623424 PMCID: PMC6006210 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-018-1556-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The majority of established model organisms belong to the supergroup Opisthokonta, which includes yeasts and animals. While enlightening, this focus has neglected protists, organisms that represent the bulk of eukaryotic diversity and are often regarded as primitive eukaryotes. One of these is the “supergroup” Excavata, which comprises unicellular flagellates of diverse lifestyles and contains species of medical importance, such as Trichomonas, Giardia, Naegleria, Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Excavata exhibits a continuum in mitochondrial forms, ranging from classical aerobic, cristae-bearing mitochondria to mitochondria-related organelles, such as hydrogenosomes and mitosomes, to the extreme case of a complete absence of the organelle. All forms of mitochondria house a machinery for the assembly of Fe–S clusters, ancient cofactors required in various biochemical activities needed to sustain every extant cell. In this review, we survey what is known about the Fe–S cluster assembly in the supergroup Excavata. We aim to bring attention to the diversity found in this group, reflected in gene losses and gains that have shaped the Fe–S cluster biogenesis pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Peña-Diaz
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic.
| | - Julius Lukeš
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
- Faculty of Sciences, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice (Budweis), Czech Republic
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32
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Benoit SL, Holland AA, Johnson MK, Maier RJ. Iron-sulfur protein maturation in Helicobacter pylori: identifying a Nfu-type cluster carrier protein and its iron-sulfur protein targets. Mol Microbiol 2018; 108:379-396. [PMID: 29498770 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori is anomalous among non nitrogen-fixing bacteria in containing an incomplete NIF system for Fe-S cluster assembly comprising two essential proteins, NifS (cysteine desulfurase) and NifU (scaffold protein). Although nifU deletion strains cannot be obtained via the conventional gene replacement, a NifU-depleted strain was constructed and shown to be more sensitive to oxidative stress compared to wild-type (WT) strains. The hp1492 gene, encoding a putative Nfu-type Fe-S cluster carrier protein, was disrupted in three different H. pylori strains, indicating that it is not essential. However, Δnfu strains have growth deficiency, are more sensitive to oxidative stress and are unable to colonize mouse stomachs. Moreover, Δnfu strains have lower aconitase activity but higher hydrogenase activity than the WT. Recombinant Nfu was found to bind either one [2Fe-2S] or [4Fe-4S] cluster/dimer, based on analytical, UV-visible absorption/CD and resonance Raman studies. A bacterial two-hybrid system was used to ascertain interactions between Nfu, NifS, NifU and each of 36 putative Fe-S-containing target proteins. Nfu, NifS and NifU were found to interact with 15, 6 and 29 putative Fe-S proteins respectively. The results indicate that Nfu, NifS and NifU play a major role in the biosynthesis and/or delivery of Fe-S clusters in H. pylori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane L Benoit
- Department of Microbiology and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Ashley A Holland
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Michael K Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Robert J Maier
- Department of Microbiology and Center for Metalloenzyme Studies, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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Cai K, Frederick RO, Tonelli M, Markley JL. ISCU(M108I) and ISCU(D39V) Differ from Wild-Type ISCU in Their Failure To Form Cysteine Desulfurase Complexes Containing Both Frataxin and Ferredoxin. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1491-1500. [PMID: 29406711 PMCID: PMC5842376 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b01234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Whereas iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster assembly on the wild-type scaffold protein ISCU, as catalyzed by the human cysteine desulfurase complex (NIA)2, exhibits a requirement for frataxin (FXN), in yeast, ISCU variant M108I has been shown to bypass the FXN requirement. Wild-type ISCU populates two interconverting conformational states: one structured and one dynamically disordered. We show here that variants ISCU(M108I) and ISCU(D39V) of human ISCU populate only the structured state. We have compared the properties of ISCU, ISCU(M108I), and ISCU(D39V), with and without FXN, in both the cysteine desulfurase step of Fe-S cluster assembly and the overall Fe-S cluster assembly reaction catalyzed by (NIA)2. In the cysteine desulfurase step with dithiothreitol (DTT) as the reductant, FXN was found to stimulate cysteine desulfurase activity with both the wild-type and structured variants, although the effect was less prominent with ISCU(D39V) than with the wild-type or ISCU(M108I). In overall Fe-S cluster assembly, frataxin was found to stimulate cluster assembly with both the wild-type and structured variants when the reductant was DTT; however, with the physiological reductant, reduced ferredoxin 2 (rdFDX2), FXN stimulated the reaction with wild-type ISCU but not with either ISCU(M108I) or ISCU(D39V). Nuclear magnetic resonance titration experiments revealed that wild-type ISCU, FXN, and rdFDX2 all bind to (NIA)2. However, when ISCU was replaced by the fully structured variant ISCU(M108I), the addition of rdFDX2 to the [NIA-ISCU(M108I)-FXN]2 complex led to the release of FXN. Thus, the displacement of FXN by rdFDX2 explains the failure of FXN to stimulate Fe-S cluster assembly on ISCU(M108I).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Cai
- National Magnetic Resonance
Facility at Madison and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Ronnie O. Frederick
- National Magnetic Resonance
Facility at Madison and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Marco Tonelli
- National Magnetic Resonance
Facility at Madison and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - John L. Markley
- National Magnetic Resonance
Facility at Madison and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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Dutkiewicz R, Nowak M. Molecular chaperones involved in mitochondrial iron-sulfur protein biogenesis. J Biol Inorg Chem 2017; 23:569-579. [PMID: 29124426 PMCID: PMC6006194 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-017-1504-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (FeS) clusters are prosthetic groups critical for the function of many proteins in all domains of life. FeS proteins function in processes ranging from oxidative phosphorylation and cofactor biosyntheses to DNA/RNA metabolism and regulation of gene expression. In eukaryotic cells, mitochondria play a central role in the process of FeS biogenesis and support maturation of FeS proteins localized within mitochondria and in other cellular compartments. In humans, defects in mitochondrial FeS cluster biogenesis lead to numerous pathologies, which are often fatal. The generation of FeS clusters in mitochondria is a complex process. The [2Fe-2S] cluster is first assembled on a dedicated scaffold protein (Isu1) by the action of protein factors that interact with Isu1 to form the "assembly complex". Next, the FeS cluster is transferred onto a recipient apo-protein. Genetic and biochemical evidence implicates participation of a specialized J-protein co-chaperone Jac1 and its mitochondrial (mt)Hsp70 chaperone partner, and the glutaredoxin Grx5 in the FeS cluster transfer process. Finally, various specialized ISC components assist in the generation of [4Fe-4S] clusters and cluster insertion into specific target apoproteins. Although a framework of protein components that are involved in the mitochondrial FeS cluster biogenesis has been established based on genetic and biochemical studies, detailed molecular mechanisms involved in this important and medically relevant process are not well understood. This review summarizes our molecular knowledge on chaperone proteins' functions during the FeS protein biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafal Dutkiewicz
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - Malgorzata Nowak
- Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307, Gdańsk, Poland
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35
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Boniecki MT, Freibert SA, Mühlenhoff U, Lill R, Cygler M. Structure and functional dynamics of the mitochondrial Fe/S cluster synthesis complex. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1287. [PMID: 29097656 PMCID: PMC5668364 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01497-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe/S) clusters are essential protein cofactors crucial for many cellular functions including DNA maintenance, protein translation, and energy conversion. De novo Fe/S cluster synthesis occurs on the mitochondrial scaffold protein ISCU and requires cysteine desulfurase NFS1, ferredoxin, frataxin, and the small factors ISD11 and ACP (acyl carrier protein). Both the mechanism of Fe/S cluster synthesis and function of ISD11-ACP are poorly understood. Here, we present crystal structures of three different NFS1-ISD11-ACP complexes with and without ISCU, and we use SAXS analyses to define the 3D architecture of the complete mitochondrial Fe/S cluster biosynthetic complex. Our structural and biochemical studies provide mechanistic insights into Fe/S cluster synthesis at the catalytic center defined by the active-site Cys of NFS1 and conserved Cys, Asp, and His residues of ISCU. We assign specific regulatory rather than catalytic roles to ISD11-ACP that link Fe/S cluster synthesis with mitochondrial lipid synthesis and cellular energy status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal T Boniecki
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, S7N 5E5
| | - Sven A Freibert
- Institut für Zytobiologie und Zytopathologie, Philipps-Universität, Robert-Koch-Strasse 6, 35032, Marburg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Mühlenhoff
- Institut für Zytobiologie und Zytopathologie, Philipps-Universität, Robert-Koch-Strasse 6, 35032, Marburg, Germany
| | - Roland Lill
- Institut für Zytobiologie und Zytopathologie, Philipps-Universität, Robert-Koch-Strasse 6, 35032, Marburg, Germany.
- LOEWE Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie SynMikro, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35043, Marburg, Germany.
| | - Miroslaw Cygler
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, S7N 5E5.
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, 3649 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3G 0B1.
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36
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Bühning M, Friemel M, Leimkühler S. Functional Complementation Studies Reveal Different Interaction Partners of Escherichia coli IscS and Human NFS1. Biochemistry 2017; 56:4592-4605. [PMID: 28766335 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The trafficking and delivery of sulfur to cofactors and nucleosides is a highly regulated and conserved process among all organisms. All sulfur transfer pathways generally have an l-cysteine desulfurase as an initial sulfur-mobilizing enzyme in common, which serves as a sulfur donor for the biosynthesis of sulfur-containing biomolecules like iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters, thiamine, biotin, lipoic acid, the molybdenum cofactor (Moco), and thiolated nucleosides in tRNA. The human l-cysteine desulfurase NFS1 and the Escherichia coli homologue IscS share a level of amino acid sequence identity of ∼60%. While E. coli IscS has a versatile role in the cell and was shown to have numerous interaction partners, NFS1 is mainly localized in mitochondria with a crucial role in the biosynthesis of Fe-S clusters. Additionally, NFS1 is also located in smaller amounts in the cytosol with a role in Moco biosynthesis and mcm5s2U34 thio modifications of nucleosides in tRNA. NFS1 and IscS were conclusively shown to have different interaction partners in their respective organisms. Here, we used functional complementation studies of an E. coli iscS deletion strain with human NFS1 to dissect their conserved roles in the transfer of sulfur to a specific target protein. Our results show that human NFS1 and E. coli IscS share conserved binding sites for proteins involved in Fe-S cluster assembly like IscU, but not with proteins for tRNA thio modifications or Moco biosynthesis. In addition, we show that human NFS1 was almost fully able to complement the role of IscS in Moco biosynthesis when its specific interaction partner protein MOCS3 from humans was also present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bühning
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam , D-14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Martin Friemel
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam , D-14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam , D-14476 Potsdam, Germany
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37
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Abstract
The biogenesis of iron-sulfur (Fe/S) proteins in eukaryotes is a multistage, multicompartment process that is essential for a broad range of cellular functions, including genome maintenance, protein translation, energy conversion, and the antiviral response. Genetic and cell biological studies over almost 2 decades have revealed some 30 proteins involved in the synthesis of cellular [2Fe-2S] and [4Fe-4S] clusters and their incorporation into numerous apoproteins. Mechanistic aspects of Fe/S protein biogenesis continue to be elucidated by biochemical and ultrastructural investigations. Here, we review recent developments in the pursuit of constructing a comprehensive model of Fe/S protein assembly in the mitochondrion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Braymer
- Institut für Zytobiologie und Zytopathologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg
| | - Roland Lill
- Institut für Zytobiologie und Zytopathologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Robert-Koch-Strasse 6, 35032 Marburg; LOEWE Zentrum für Synthetische Mikrobiologie SynMikro, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse, 35043 Marburg, Germany.
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38
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Cory SA, Van Vranken JG, Brignole EJ, Patra S, Winge DR, Drennan CL, Rutter J, Barondeau DP. Structure of human Fe-S assembly subcomplex reveals unexpected cysteine desulfurase architecture and acyl-ACP-ISD11 interactions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E5325-E5334. [PMID: 28634302 PMCID: PMC5502623 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1702849114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotes, sulfur is mobilized for incorporation into multiple biosynthetic pathways by a cysteine desulfurase complex that consists of a catalytic subunit (NFS1), LYR protein (ISD11), and acyl carrier protein (ACP). This NFS1-ISD11-ACP (SDA) complex forms the core of the iron-sulfur (Fe-S) assembly complex and associates with assembly proteins ISCU2, frataxin (FXN), and ferredoxin to synthesize Fe-S clusters. Here we present crystallographic and electron microscopic structures of the SDA complex coupled to enzyme kinetic and cell-based studies to provide structure-function properties of a mitochondrial cysteine desulfurase. Unlike prokaryotic cysteine desulfurases, the SDA structure adopts an unexpected architecture in which a pair of ISD11 subunits form the dimeric core of the SDA complex, which clarifies the critical role of ISD11 in eukaryotic assemblies. The different quaternary structure results in an incompletely formed substrate channel and solvent-exposed pyridoxal 5'-phosphate cofactor and provides a rationale for the allosteric activator function of FXN in eukaryotic systems. The structure also reveals the 4'-phosphopantetheine-conjugated acyl-group of ACP occupies the hydrophobic core of ISD11, explaining the basis of ACP stabilization. The unexpected architecture for the SDA complex provides a framework for understanding interactions with acceptor proteins for sulfur-containing biosynthetic pathways, elucidating mechanistic details of eukaryotic Fe-S cluster biosynthesis, and clarifying how defects in Fe-S cluster assembly lead to diseases such as Friedreich's ataxia. Moreover, our results support a lock-and-key model in which LYR proteins associate with acyl-ACP as a mechanism for fatty acid biosynthesis to coordinate the expression, Fe-S cofactor maturation, and activity of the respiratory complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth A Cory
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77842
| | - Jonathan G Van Vranken
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
| | - Edward J Brignole
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Shachin Patra
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77842
| | - Dennis R Winge
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
- Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84132
| | - Catherine L Drennan
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Jared Rutter
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84132
| | - David P Barondeau
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77842;
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39
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Jaroschinsky M, Pinske C, Gary Sawers R. Differential effects of isc operon mutations on the biosynthesis and activity of key anaerobic metalloenzymes in Escherichia coli. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2017. [PMID: 28640740 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Escherichia coli has two machineries for the synthesis of FeS clusters, namely Isc (iron-sulfur cluster) and Suf (sulfur formation). The Isc machinery, encoded by the iscRSUA-hscBA-fdx-iscXoperon, plays a crucial role in the biogenesis of FeS clusters for the oxidoreductases of aerobic metabolism. Less is known, however, about the role of ISC in the maturation of key multi-subunit metalloenzymes of anaerobic metabolism. Here, we determined the contribution of each iscoperon gene product towards the functionality of the major anaerobic oxidoreductases in E. coli, including three [NiFe]-hydrogenases (Hyd), two respiratory formate dehydrogenases (FDH) and nitrate reductase (NAR). Mutants lacking the cysteine desulfurase, IscS, lacked activity of all six enzymes, as well as the activity of fumaratereductase, and this was due to deficiencies in enzyme biosynthesis, maturation or FeS cluster insertion into electron-transfer components. Notably, based on anaerobic growth characteristics and metabolite patterns, the activity of the radical-S-adenosylmethionine enzyme pyruvate formate-lyase activase was independent of IscS, suggesting that FeS biogenesis for this ancient enzyme has different requirements. Mutants lacking either the scaffold protein IscU, the ferredoxin Fdx or the chaperones HscA or HscB had similar enzyme phenotypes: five of the oxidoreductases were essentially inactive, with the exception being the Hyd-3 enzyme, which formed part of the H2-producing formate hydrogenlyase (FHL) complex. Neither the frataxin-homologue CyaY nor the IscX protein was essential for synthesis of the three Hyd enzymes. Thus, while IscS is essential for H2 production in E. coli, the other ISC components are non-essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Jaroschinsky
- Institute for Biology/Microbiology, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany.,Present address: ICP Analytik GmbH & Co. KG, Brandenburger Platz 1, 24211 Preetz, Germany
| | - Constanze Pinske
- Institute for Biology/Microbiology, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - R Gary Sawers
- Institute for Biology/Microbiology, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
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40
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Bühning M, Valleriani A, Leimkühler S. The Role of SufS Is Restricted to Fe-S Cluster Biosynthesis in Escherichia coli. Biochemistry 2017; 56:1987-2000. [PMID: 28323419 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In Escherichia coli, two different systems that are important for the coordinate formation of Fe-S clusters have been identified, namely, the ISC and SUF systems. The ISC system is the housekeeping Fe-S machinery, which provides Fe-S clusters for numerous cellular proteins. The IscS protein of this system was additionally revealed to be the primary sulfur donor for several sulfur-containing molecules with important biological functions, among which are the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) and thiolated nucleosides in tRNA. Here, we show that deletion of central components of the ISC system in addition to IscS leads to an overall decrease in Fe-S cluster enzyme and molybdoenzyme activity in addition to a decrease in the number of Fe-S-dependent thiomodifications of tRNA, based on the fact that some proteins involved in Moco biosynthesis and tRNA thiolation are Fe-S-dependent. Complementation of the ISC deficient strains with the suf operon restored the activity of Fe-S-containing proteins, including the MoaA protein, which is involved in the conversion of 5'GTP to cyclic pyranopterin monophosphate in the fist step of Moco biosynthesis. While both systems share a high degree of similarity, we show that the function of their respective l-cysteine desulfurase IscS or SufS is specific for each cellular pathway. It is revealed that SufS cannot play the role of IscS in sulfur transfer for the formation of 2-thiouridine, 4-thiouridine, or the dithiolene group of molybdopterin, being unable to interact with TusA or ThiI. The results demonstrate that the role of the SUF system is exclusively restricted to Fe-S cluster assembly in the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bühning
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam , D-14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Angelo Valleriani
- Department of Theory and Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam , D-14476 Potsdam, Germany
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41
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Prischi F, Pastore A. Hybrid Methods in Iron-Sulfur Cluster Biogenesis. Front Mol Biosci 2017; 4:12. [PMID: 28349052 PMCID: PMC5346568 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2017.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hybrid methods, which combine and integrate several biochemical and biophysical techniques, have rapidly caught up in the last twenty years to provide a way to obtain a fuller description of proteins and molecular complexes with sizes and complexity otherwise not easily affordable. Here, we review the use of a robust hybrid methodology based on a mixture of NMR, SAXS, site directed mutagenesis and molecular docking which we have developed to determine the structure of weakly interacting molecular complexes. We applied this technique to gain insights into the structure of complexes formed amongst proteins involved in the molecular machine, which produces the essential iron-sulfur cluster prosthetic groups. Our results were validated both by X-ray structures and by other groups who adopted the same approach. We discuss the advantages and the limitations of our methodology and propose new avenues, which could improve it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Prischi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex Colchester, UK
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- Maurice Wohl Institute, King's College LondonLondon, UK; Molecular Medicine Department, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
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42
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Zhou J, Yang L, Wang C, Choi ES, Kim SW. Enhanced performance of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway by manipulation of redox reactions relevant to IspC, IspG, and IspH. J Biotechnol 2017; 248:1-8. [PMID: 28279816 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Revised: 03/04/2017] [Accepted: 03/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The 2C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway is a carbon-efficient route for synthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), the building blocks of isoprenoids. However, practical application of a native or recombinant MEP pathway for the mass production of isoprenoids in Escherichia coli has been unsatisfactory. In this study, the entire recombinant MEP pathway was established with plasmids and used for the production of an isoprenoid, protoilludene. E. coli harboring the recombinant MEP pathway plasmid (ME) and a protoilludene synthesis pathway plasmid (AO) produced 10.4mg/L of protoilludene after 48h of culture. To determine the rate-limiting gene on plasmid ME, each constituent gene of the MEP pathway was additionally overexpressed on the plasmid AO. The additional overexpression of IPP isomerase (IDI) enhanced protoilludene production to 67.4mg/L. Overexpression of the Fpr and FldA protein complex, which could mediate electron transfer from NADPH to Fe-S cluster proteins such as IspG and IspH of the MEP pathway, increased protoilludene production to 318.8mg/L. Given that it is required for IspC as well as IspG/H, the MEP pathway has high demand for NADPH. To increase the supply of NADPH, a NADH kinase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (tPos5p) that converts NADH to NADPH was introduced along with the deletion of a promiscuous NADPH-dependent aldehyde reductase (YjgB) that consumes NADPH. This resulted in a protoilludene production of 512.7mg/L. The results indicate that IDI, Fpr-FldA redox proteins, and NADPH regenerators are key engineering points for boosting the metabolic flux toward a recombinant MEP pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Zhou
- Faculty of Life Science and Food Engineering, HuaiYin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China; Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus), PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, South Korea
| | - Liyang Yang
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus), PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, South Korea
| | - Chonglong Wang
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus), PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, South Korea
| | - Eui-Sung Choi
- Industrial Biotechnology Research Center, KRIBB, Daejeon 28116, South Korea.
| | - Seon-Won Kim
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 Plus), PMBBRC, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, South Korea.
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43
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Cai K, Tonelli M, Frederick RO, Markley JL. Human Mitochondrial Ferredoxin 1 (FDX1) and Ferredoxin 2 (FDX2) Both Bind Cysteine Desulfurase and Donate Electrons for Iron-Sulfur Cluster Biosynthesis. Biochemistry 2017; 56:487-499. [PMID: 28001042 PMCID: PMC5267338 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Ferredoxins play an important role as an electron donor in iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster biosynthesis. Two ferredoxins, human mitochondrial ferredoxin 1 (FDX1) and human mitochondrial ferredoxin 2 (FDX2), are present in the matrix of human mitochondria. Conflicting results have been reported regarding their respective function in mitochondrial iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis. We report here biophysical studies of the interaction of these two ferredoxins with other proteins involved in mitochondrial iron-sulfur cluster assembly. Results from nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy show that both FDX1 and FDX2 (in both their reduced and oxidized states) interact with the protein complex responsible for cluster assembly, which contains cysteine desulfurase (NFS1), ISD11 (also known as LYRM4), and acyl carrier protein (Acp). In all cases, ferredoxin residues close to the Fe-S cluster are involved in the interaction with this complex. Isothermal titration calorimetry results showed that FDX2 binds more tightly to the cysteine desulfurase complex than FDX1 does. The reduced form of each ferredoxin became oxidized in the presence of the cysteine desulfurase complex when l-cysteine was added, leading to its conversion to l-alanine and the generation of sulfide. In an in vitro reaction, the reduced form of each ferredoxin was found to support Fe-S cluster assembly on ISCU; the rate of cluster assembly was faster with FDX2 than with FDX1. Taken together, these results show that both FDX1 and FDX2 can function in Fe-S cluster assembly in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Cai
- Mitochondrial
Protein Partnership, Center for Eukaryotic
Structural Genomics, and National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison,
Biochemistry
Department, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Marco Tonelli
- Mitochondrial
Protein Partnership, Center for Eukaryotic
Structural Genomics, and National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison,
Biochemistry
Department, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Ronnie O. Frederick
- Mitochondrial
Protein Partnership, Center for Eukaryotic
Structural Genomics, and National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison,
Biochemistry
Department, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - John L. Markley
- Mitochondrial
Protein Partnership, Center for Eukaryotic
Structural Genomics, and National Magnetic Resonance Facility at Madison,
Biochemistry
Department, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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44
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Leimkühler S, Bühning M, Beilschmidt L. Shared Sulfur Mobilization Routes for tRNA Thiolation and Molybdenum Cofactor Biosynthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. Biomolecules 2017; 7:biom7010005. [PMID: 28098827 PMCID: PMC5372717 DOI: 10.3390/biom7010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Revised: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Modifications of transfer RNA (tRNA) have been shown to play critical roles in the biogenesis, metabolism, structural stability and function of RNA molecules, and the specific modifications of nucleobases with sulfur atoms in tRNA are present in pro- and eukaryotes. Here, especially the thiomodifications xm5s2U at the wobble position 34 in tRNAs for Lys, Gln and Glu, were suggested to have an important role during the translation process by ensuring accurate deciphering of the genetic code and by stabilization of the tRNA structure. The trafficking and delivery of sulfur nucleosides is a complex process carried out by sulfur relay systems involving numerous proteins, which not only deliver sulfur to the specific tRNAs but also to other sulfur-containing molecules including iron–sulfur clusters, thiamin, biotin, lipoic acid and molybdopterin (MPT). Among the biosynthesis of these sulfur-containing molecules, the biosynthesis of the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) and the synthesis of thio-modified tRNAs in particular show a surprising link by sharing protein components for sulfur mobilization in pro- and eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Leimkühler
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Martin Bühning
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Lena Beilschmidt
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany.
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45
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Puglisi R, Yan R, Adinolfi S, Pastore A. A New Tessera into the Interactome of the isc Operon: A Novel Interaction between HscB and IscS. Front Mol Biosci 2016; 3:48. [PMID: 27730125 PMCID: PMC5037179 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2016.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron sulfur clusters are essential universal prosthetic groups which can be formed inorganically but, in biology, are bound to proteins and produced enzymatically. Most of the components of the machine that produces the clusters are conserved throughout evolution. In bacteria, they are encoded in the isc operon. Previous reports provide information on the role of specific components but a clear picture of how the whole machine works is still missing. We have carried out a study of the effects of the co-chaperone HscB from the model system E. coli. We document a previously undetected weak interaction between the chaperone HscB and the desulfurase IscS, one of the two main players of the machine. The binding site involves a region of HscB in the longer stem of the approximately L-shaped molecule, whereas the interacting surface of IscS overlaps with the surface previously involved in binding other proteins, such as ferredoxin and frataxin. Our findings provide an entirely new perspective to our comprehension of the role of HscB and propose this protein as a component of the IscS complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Puglisi
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Maurice Wohl Institute, King's College London London, UK
| | - Robert Yan
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Maurice Wohl Institute, King's College London London, UK
| | - Salvatore Adinolfi
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Maurice Wohl Institute, King's College London London, UK
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Maurice Wohl Institute, King's College LondonLondon, UK; Molecular Medicine Department, University of PaviaPavia, Italy
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di Maio D, Chandramouli B, Yan R, Brancato G, Pastore A. Understanding the role of dynamics in the iron sulfur cluster molecular machine. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1861:3154-3163. [PMID: 27474202 PMCID: PMC5176006 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Revised: 07/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The bacterial proteins IscS, IscU and CyaY, the bacterial orthologue of frataxin, play an essential role in the biological machine that assembles the prosthetic FeS cluster groups on proteins. They form functionally binary and ternary complexes both in vivo and in vitro. Yet, the mechanism by which they work remains unclear. METHODS We carried out extensive molecular dynamics simulations to understand the nature of their interactions and the role of dynamics starting from the crystal structure of a IscS-IscU complex and the experimentally-based model of a ternary IscS-IscU-CyaY complex and used nuclear magnetic resonance to experimentally test the interface. RESULTS We show that, while being firmly anchored to IscS, IscU has a pivotal motion around the interface. Our results also describe how the catalytic loop of IscS can flip conformation to allow FeS cluster assembly. This motion is hampered in the ternary complex explaining its inhibitory properties in cluster formation. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that the observed 'fluid' IscS-IscU interface provides the binary complex with a functional adaptability exploited in partner recognition and unravels the molecular determinants of the reported inhibitory action of CyaY in the IscS-IscU-CyaY complex explained in terms of the hampering effect on specific IscU-IscS movements. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Our study provides the first mechanistic basis to explain how the IscS-IscU complex selects its binding partners and supports the inhibitory role of CyaY in the ternary complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo di Maio
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, I-56126 Pisa, Italy; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Pisa, Largo Bruno Pontecorvo 3, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Balasubramanian Chandramouli
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, I-56126 Pisa, Italy; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Pisa, Largo Bruno Pontecorvo 3, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Robert Yan
- Department of Neuroscience, Wohl Institute, King's College London, Denmark Hill Campus, London SE5, UK
| | - Giuseppe Brancato
- Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza dei Cavalieri 7, I-56126 Pisa, Italy; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Pisa, Largo Bruno Pontecorvo 3, 56127 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- Department of Neuroscience, Wohl Institute, King's College London, Denmark Hill Campus, London SE5, UK; Immunologia Patologia Generale Department, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata, 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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47
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Yan R, Friemel M, Aloisi C, Huynen M, Taylor IA, Leimkühler S, Pastore A. The Eukaryotic-Specific ISD11 Is a Complex-Orphan Protein with Ability to Bind the Prokaryotic IscS. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0157895. [PMID: 27427956 PMCID: PMC4948766 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The eukaryotic protein Isd11 is a chaperone that binds and stabilizes the central component of the essential metabolic pathway responsible for formation of iron-sulfur clusters in mitochondria, the desulfurase Nfs1. Little is known about the exact role of Isd11. Here, we show that human Isd11 (ISD11) is a helical protein which exists in solution as an equilibrium between monomer, dimeric and tetrameric species when in the absence of human Nfs1 (NFS1). We also show that, surprisingly, recombinant ISD11 expressed in E. coli co-purifies with the bacterial orthologue of NFS1, IscS. Binding is weak but specific suggesting that, despite the absence of Isd11 sequences in bacteria, there is enough conservation between the two desulfurases to retain a similar mode of interaction. This knowledge may inform us on the conservation of the mode of binding of Isd11 to the desulfurase. We used evolutionary evidence to suggest Isd11 residues involved in the interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Yan
- Maurice Wohl Institute, King’s College London, 5 Cutcombe Rd, SE5, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Friemel
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Claudia Aloisi
- Maurice Wohl Institute, King’s College London, 5 Cutcombe Rd, SE5, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martijn Huynen
- CMBI 260, Radboud University Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ian A. Taylor
- The Francis Crick Institute, Mill Hill Laboratory, The Ridgeway, London, NW7 1AA, United Kingdom
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Department of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- Maurice Wohl Institute, King’s College London, 5 Cutcombe Rd, SE5, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are fundamental to numerous biological processes in most organisms, but these protein cofactors can be prone to damage by various oxidants (e.g., O2, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species) and toxic levels of certain metals (e.g., cobalt and copper). Furthermore, their synthesis can also be directly influenced by the level of available iron in the environment. Consequently, the cellular need for Fe-S cluster biogenesis varies with fluctuating growth conditions. To accommodate changes in Fe-S demand, microorganisms employ diverse regulatory strategies to tailor Fe-S cluster biogenesis according to their surroundings. Here, we review the mechanisms that regulate Fe-S cluster formation in bacteria, primarily focusing on control of the Isc and Suf Fe-S cluster biogenesis systems in the model bacterium Escherichia coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Mettert
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, ,
| | - Patricia J Kiley
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, ,
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49
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Faraj SE, González-Lebrero RM, Roman EA, Santos J. Human Frataxin Folds Via an Intermediate State. Role of the C-Terminal Region. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20782. [PMID: 26856628 PMCID: PMC4746760 DOI: 10.1038/srep20782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the folding reaction of human frataxin, whose deficiency causes the neurodegenerative disease Friedreich's Ataxia (FRDA). The characterization of different conformational states would provide knowledge about how frataxin can be stabilized without altering its functionality. Wild-type human frataxin and a set of mutants, including two highly destabilized FRDA-associated variants were studied by urea-induced folding/unfolding in a rapid mixing device and followed by circular dichroism. The analysis clearly indicates the existence of an intermediate state (I) in the folding route with significant secondary structure content but relatively low compactness, compared with the native ensemble. However, at high NaCl concentrations I-state gains substantial compaction, and the unfolding barrier is strongly affected, revealing the importance of electrostatics in the folding mechanism. The role of the C-terminal region (CTR), the key determinant of frataxin stability, was also studied. Simulations consistently with experiments revealed that this stretch is essentially unstructured, in the most compact transition state ensemble (TSE2). The complete truncation of the CTR drastically destabilizes the native state without altering TSE2. Results presented here shed light on the folding mechanism of frataxin, opening the possibility of mutating it to generate hyperstable variants without altering their folding kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago E. Faraj
- Instituto de Química y Físico-Química Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, 1113AAD, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rodolfo M. González-Lebrero
- Instituto de Química y Físico-Química Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, 1113AAD, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ernesto A. Roman
- Instituto de Química y Físico-Química Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, 1113AAD, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Javier Santos
- Instituto de Química y Físico-Química Biológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, 1113AAD, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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50
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Prischi F, Pastore A. Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Hybrid Methods to Structure Determination of Complex Systems. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 896:351-68. [PMID: 27165336 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27216-0_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The current main challenge of Structural Biology is to undertake the structure determination of increasingly complex systems in the attempt to better understand their biological function. As systems become more challenging, however, there is an increasing demand for the parallel use of more than one independent technique to allow pushing the frontiers of structure determination and, at the same time, obtaining independent structural validation. The combination of different Structural Biology methods has been named hybrid approaches. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the most recent examples and new developments that have allowed structure determination or experimentally-based modelling of various molecular complexes selecting them among those that combine the use of nuclear magnetic resonance and small angle scattering techniques. We provide a selective but focused account of some of the most exciting recent approaches and discuss their possible further developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Prischi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, UK
| | - Annalisa Pastore
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, King's College London, Denmark Hill Campus, London, UK.
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