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Brito Querido J, Sokabe M, Díaz-López I, Gordiyenko Y, Zuber P, Du Y, Albacete-Albacete L, Ramakrishnan V, Fraser CS. Human tumor suppressor protein Pdcd4 binds at the mRNA entry channel in the 40S small ribosomal subunit. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6633. [PMID: 39117603 PMCID: PMC11310195 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50672-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Translation is regulated mainly in the initiation step, and its dysregulation is implicated in many human diseases. Several proteins have been found to regulate translational initiation, including Pdcd4 (programmed cell death gene 4). Pdcd4 is a tumor suppressor protein that prevents cell growth, invasion, and metastasis. It is downregulated in most tumor cells, while global translation in the cell is upregulated. To understand the mechanisms underlying translational control by Pdcd4, we used single-particle cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structure of human Pdcd4 bound to 40S small ribosomal subunit, including Pdcd4-40S and Pdcd4-40S-eIF4A-eIF3-eIF1 complexes. The structures reveal the binding site of Pdcd4 at the mRNA entry site in the 40S, where the C-terminal domain (CTD) interacts with eIF4A at the mRNA entry site, while the N-terminal domain (NTD) is inserted into the mRNA channel and decoding site. The structures, together with quantitative binding and in vitro translation assays, shed light on the critical role of the NTD for the recruitment of Pdcd4 to the ribosomal complex and suggest a model whereby Pdcd4 blocks the eIF4F-independent role of eIF4A during recruitment and scanning of the 5' UTR of mRNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jailson Brito Querido
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK.
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
- Center for RNA Biomedicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Masaaki Sokabe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Yifei Du
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Christopher S Fraser
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Biological Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
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Kumar D, Jain S, Coulter DW, Joshi SS, Chaturvedi NK. PRMT5 as a Potential Therapeutic Target in MYC-Amplified Medulloblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:5855. [PMID: 38136401 PMCID: PMC10741595 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15245855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
MYC amplification or overexpression is most common in Group 3 medulloblastomas and is positively associated with poor clinical outcomes. Recently, protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) overexpression has been shown to be associated with tumorigenic MYC functions in cancers, particularly in brain cancers such as glioblastoma and medulloblastoma. PRMT5 regulates oncogenes, including MYC, that are often deregulated in medulloblastomas. However, the role of PRMT5-mediated post-translational modification in the stabilization of these oncoproteins remains poorly understood. The potential impact of PRMT5 inhibition on MYC makes it an attractive target in various cancers. PRMT5 inhibitors are a promising class of anti-cancer drugs demonstrating preclinical and preliminary clinical efficacies. Here, we review the publicly available preclinical and clinical studies on PRMT5 targeting using small molecule inhibitors and discuss the prospects of using them in medulloblastoma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devendra Kumar
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA; (D.K.); (S.J.); (D.W.C.)
| | - Stuti Jain
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA; (D.K.); (S.J.); (D.W.C.)
| | - Don W. Coulter
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA; (D.K.); (S.J.); (D.W.C.)
- Child Health Research Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA
- Fred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA
| | - Shantaram S. Joshi
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA;
| | - Nagendra K. Chaturvedi
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA; (D.K.); (S.J.); (D.W.C.)
- Child Health Research Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA
- Fred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 69198, USA
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3
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Zheng J, Li B, Wu Y, Wu X, Wang Y. Targeting Arginine Methyltransferase PRMT5 for Cancer Therapy: Updated Progress and Novel Strategies. J Med Chem 2023. [PMID: 37366223 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
As a predominant type II protein arginine methyltransferase, PRMT5 plays critical roles in various normal cellular processes by catalyzing the mono- and symmetrical dimethylation of a wide range of histone and nonhistone substrates. Clinical studies have revealed that high expression of PRMT5 is observed in different solid tumors and hematological malignancies and is closely associated with cancer initiation and progression. Accordingly, PRMT5 is becoming a promising anticancer target and has received great attention in both the pharmaceutical industry and the academic community. In this Perspective, we comprehensively summarize recent advances in the development of first-generation PRMT5 enzymatic inhibitors and highlight novel strategies targeting PRMT5 in the past 5 years. We also discuss the challenges and opportunities of PRMT5 inhibition, with the aim of shedding light on future PRMT5 drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahong Zheng
- Balance-Based Drug Discovery Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Bang Li
- Balance-Based Drug Discovery Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yingqi Wu
- Balance-Based Drug Discovery Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaoshuang Wu
- Balance-Based Drug Discovery Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuanxiang Wang
- Balance-Based Drug Discovery Laboratory, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Papanikolaou NA, Nikolaidis M, Amoutzias GD, Fouza A, Papaioannou M, Pandey A, Papavassiliou AG. The Dynamic and Crucial Role of the Arginine Methylproteome in Myoblast Cell Differentiation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:2124. [PMID: 36768448 PMCID: PMC9916730 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein arginine methylation is an extensive and functionally significant post-translational modification. However, little is known about its role in differentiation at the systems level. Using stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) proteomics of whole proteome analysis in proliferating or five-day differentiated mouse C2C12 myoblasts, followed by high-resolution mass spectrometry, biochemical assays, and specific immunoprecipitation of mono- or dimethylated arginine peptides, we identified several protein families that were differentially methylated on arginine. Our study is the first to reveal global changes in the arginine mono- or dimethylation of proteins in proliferating myoblasts and differentiated myocytes and to identify enriched protein domains and novel short linear motifs (SLiMs). Our data may be crucial for dissecting the links between differentiation and cancer growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos A. Papanikolaou
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Marios Nikolaidis
- Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larisa, Greece
| | - Grigorios D. Amoutzias
- Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larisa, Greece
| | - Ariadni Fouza
- Fifth Surgical Department, Ippokrateio General Hospital, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54643 Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Maria Papaioannou
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece
| | - Akhilesh Pandey
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Athanasios G. Papavassiliou
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
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Hwang JW, Cho Y, Bae GU, Kim SN, Kim YK. Protein arginine methyltransferases: promising targets for cancer therapy. Exp Mol Med 2021; 53:788-808. [PMID: 34006904 PMCID: PMC8178397 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-021-00613-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein methylation, a post-translational modification (PTM), is observed in a wide variety of cell types from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. With recent and rapid advancements in epigenetic research, the importance of protein methylation has been highlighted. The methylation of histone proteins that contributes to the epigenetic histone code is not only dynamic but is also finely controlled by histone methyltransferases and demethylases, which are essential for the transcriptional regulation of genes. In addition, many nonhistone proteins are methylated, and these modifications govern a variety of cellular functions, including RNA processing, translation, signal transduction, DNA damage response, and the cell cycle. Recently, the importance of protein arginine methylation, especially in cell cycle regulation and DNA repair processes, has been noted. Since the dysregulation of protein arginine methylation is closely associated with cancer development, protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) have garnered significant interest as novel targets for anticancer drug development. Indeed, several PRMT inhibitors are in phase 1/2 clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the biological functions of PRMTs in cancer and the current development status of PRMT inhibitors in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Won Hwang
- grid.412670.60000 0001 0729 3748Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, 04310 Republic of Korea
| | - Yena Cho
- grid.412670.60000 0001 0729 3748Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, 04310 Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu-Un Bae
- grid.412670.60000 0001 0729 3748Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, 04310 Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Nam Kim
- grid.35541.360000000121053345Natural Product Research Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Gangneung, 25451 Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Kee Kim
- grid.412670.60000 0001 0729 3748Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, 04310 Republic of Korea
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Liang Z, Liu L, Wen C, Jiang H, Ye T, Ma S, Liu X. Clinicopathological and Prognostic Significance of PRMT5 in Cancers: A System Review and Meta-Analysis. Cancer Control 2021; 28:10732748211050583. [PMID: 34758643 PMCID: PMC8591649 DOI: 10.1177/10732748211050583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Since protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) is abnormally expressed in various tumors, in this study we aim to assess the association between PRMT5 and clinicopathological and prognostic features. METHODS Electronic databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and the Cochrane Library were searched until July 25, 2021. The critical appraisal of the eligible studies was performed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale. Pooled hazard ratios (HR) and pooled odds ratios (OR) were calculated to assess the effect. Engauge Digitizer version 12.1, STATA version 15.1, and R version 4.0.5 were used to obtain and analysis the data. RESULTS A total of 32 original studies covering 15,583 patients were included. In our data, it indicated that high level of PRMT5 was significantly correlated with advanced tumor stage (OR = 2.12, 95% CI: 1.22-3.70, P =.008; I2 = 80.7%) and positively correlated with poor overall survival (HR = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.46-1.73, P < .001; I2 = 50%) and progression-free survival (HR = 1.53, 95% CI: 1.24-1.88, P < .001; I2 = 0%). In addition, sub-group analysis showed that high level of PRMT5 was associated with poor overall survival for such 5 kinds of cancers as hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, gastric cancer, and lung cancer. CONCLUSION For the first time we found PRMT5 was pan-cancerous as a prognostic biomarker and high level of PRMT5 was associated with poor prognosis for certain cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Liang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Lianchang Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Chaowei Wen
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Heya Jiang
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Tianxia Ye
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Shumei Ma
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
- Key Laboratory of Watershed Science and Health of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Xiaodong Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Radiobiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, 130021, China
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
- Key Laboratory of Watershed Science and Health of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
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7
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WD Repeat Domain 77 Protein Regulates Translation of E2F1 and E2F3 mRNA. Mol Cell Biol 2020; 40:MCB.00302-20. [PMID: 33020149 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00302-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
WD repeat domain 77 protein (WDR77) is required for cellular proliferation of lung and prostate epithelial cells during earlier stages of development and is reactivated during prostate and lung tumorigenesis. WDR77 plays an essential role in prostate tumorigenesis and cell growth mediated by growth regulatory factors. Here, we identified E2F1 and E2F3 mRNAs as translational targets of WDR77. We demonstrated that WDR77 regulated the translation of E2F1 and E2F3 mRNAs through the 5' untranslated regions (UTRs) of E2F1 and E2F3 (E2F1/3) mRNAs. WDR77 physically interacted with programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) that suppresses translation of mRNAs containing structured 5' UTRs by interacting with eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A (eIF4A) and inhibiting its helicase activity. Further, we demonstrated that the interaction between WDR77 and PDCD4 prevented the binding of PDCD4 to eIF4A and relieved PDCD4's inhibitory effect on eIF4A1. Overall, our work reveals for the first time that WDR77 is directly involved in translational regulation of E2F1/3 mRNAs through their structured 5' UTRs, PDCD4, and eIF4A1 and provides novel insight into the cell growth controlled by WDR77.
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8
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Abstract
Protein methyl transferases play critical roles in numerous regulatory pathways that underlie cancer development, progression and therapy-response. Here we discuss the function of PRMT5, a member of the nine-member PRMT family, in controlling oncogenic processes including tumor intrinsic, as well as extrinsic microenvironmental signaling pathways. We discuss PRMT5 effect on histone methylation and methylation of regulatory proteins including those involved in RNA splicing, cell cycle, cell death and metabolic signaling. In all, we highlight the importance of PRMT5 regulation and function in cancer, which provide the foundation for therapeutic modalities targeting PRMT5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyungsoo Kim
- Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Ze'ev A Ronai
- Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
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9
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Hartley AV, Wang B, Jiang G, Wei H, Sun M, Prabhu L, Martin M, Safa A, Sun S, Liu Y, Lu T. Regulation of a PRMT5/NF-κB Axis by Phosphorylation of PRMT5 at Serine 15 in Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103684. [PMID: 32456215 PMCID: PMC7279388 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The overexpression of PRMT5 is highly correlated to poor clinical outcomes for colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Importantly, our previous work demonstrated that PRMT5 overexpression could substantially augment activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) via methylation of arginine 30 (R30) on its p65 subunit, while knockdown of PRMT5 showed the opposite effect. However, the precise mechanisms governing this PRMT5/NF-κB axis are still largely unknown. Here, we report a novel finding that PRMT5 is phosphorylated on serine 15 (S15) in response to interleukin-1β (IL-1β) stimulation. Interestingly, we identified for the first time that the oncogenic kinase, PKCι could catalyze this phosphorylation event. Overexpression of the serine-to-alanine mutant of PRMT5 (S15A), in either HEK293 cells or CRC cells HT29, DLD1, and HCT116 attenuated NF-κB transactivation compared to WT-PRMT5, confirming that S15 phosphorylation is critical for the activation of NF-κB by PRMT5. Furthermore, the S15A mutant when compared to WT-PRMT5, could downregulate a subset of IL-1β-inducible NF-κB-target genes which correlated with attenuated promoter occupancy of p65 at its target genes. Additionally, the S15A mutant reduced IL-1β-induced methyltransferase activity of PRMT5 and disrupted the interaction of PRMT5 with p65. Furthermore, our data indicate that blockade of PKCι-regulated PRMT5-mediated activation of NF-κB was likely through phosphorylation of PRMT5 at S15. Finally, inhibition of PKCι or overexpression of the S15A mutant attenuated the growth, migratory, and colony-forming abilities of CRC cells compared to the WT-PRMT5. Collectively, we have identified a novel PKCι/PRMT5/NF-κB signaling axis, suggesting that pharmacological disruption of this pivotal axis could serve as the basis for new anti-cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antja-Voy Hartley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Benlian Wang
- Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
| | - Guanglong Jiang
- Department of Medical & Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (G.J.); (Y.L.)
| | - Han Wei
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Mengyao Sun
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Lakshmi Prabhu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Matthew Martin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Ahmad Safa
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Steven Sun
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
| | - Yunlong Liu
- Department of Medical & Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (G.J.); (Y.L.)
| | - Tao Lu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA; (A.-V.H.); (H.W.); (M.S.); (L.P.); (M.M.); (A.S.); (S.S.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 635 Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(317)-278-0520; Fax: +1-(317)-274-7714
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Lin WC, Chakraborty A, Huang SC, Wang PY, Hsieh YJ, Chien KY, Lee YH, Chang CC, Tang HY, Lin YT, Tung CS, Luo JD, Chen TW, Lin TY, Cheng ML, Chen YT, Yeh CT, Liu JL, Sung LY, Shiao MS, Yu JS, Chang YS, Pai LM. Histidine-Dependent Protein Methylation Is Required for Compartmentalization of CTP Synthase. Cell Rep 2019; 24:2733-2745.e7. [PMID: 30184506 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CTP synthase (CTPS) forms compartmentalized filaments in response to substrate availability and environmental nutrient status. However, the physiological role of filaments and mechanisms for filament assembly are not well understood. Here, we provide evidence that CTPS forms filaments in response to histidine influx during glutamine starvation. Tetramer conformation-based filament formation restricts CTPS enzymatic activity during nutrient deprivation. CTPS protein levels remain stable in the presence of histidine during nutrient deprivation, followed by rapid cell growth after stress relief. We demonstrate that filament formation is controlled by methylation and that histidine promotes re-methylation of homocysteine by donating one-carbon intermediates to the cytosolic folate cycle. Furthermore, we find that starvation stress and glutamine deficiency activate the GCN2/ATF4/MTHFD2 axis, which coordinates CTPS filament formation. CTPS filament formation induced by histidine-mediated methylation may be a strategy used by cancer cells to maintain homeostasis and ensure a growth advantage in adverse environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Cheng Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Archan Chakraborty
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Chia Huang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Yu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Ju Hsieh
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Yi Chien
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Clinical Proteomics Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Hsien Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Chun Chang
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Hsiang-Yu Tang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Healthy Aging Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Tsun Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Shung Tung
- Theoretical Biology and Biophysics Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - Ji-Dung Luo
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Bioinformatics Core Laboratory, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Wen Chen
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Departments of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Yang Lin
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei 114, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Ling Cheng
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Healthy Aging Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Clinical Metabolomics Core Laboratory, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ting Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Kidney Research Center, Department of Nephrology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Chau-Ting Yeh
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Ji-Long Liu
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Li-Ying Sung
- Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Shi Shiao
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Healthy Aging Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Jau-Song Yu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Sun Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Li-Mei Pai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Molecular Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan; Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.
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11
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Matsuhashi S, Manirujjaman M, Hamajima H, Ozaki I. Control Mechanisms of the Tumor Suppressor PDCD4: Expression and Functions. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092304. [PMID: 31075975 PMCID: PMC6539695 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
PDCD4 is a novel tumor suppressor to show multi-functions inhibiting cell growth, tumor invasion, metastasis, and inducing apoptosis. PDCD4 protein binds to the translation initiation factor eIF4A, some transcription factors, and many other factors and modulates the function of the binding partners. PDCD4 downregulation stimulates and PDCD4 upregulation inhibits the TPA-induced transformation of cells. However, PDCD4 gene mutations have not been found in tumor cells but gene expression was post transcriptionally downregulated by micro environmental factors such as growth factors and interleukins. In this review, we focus on the suppression mechanisms of PDCD4 protein that is induced by the tumor promotors EGF and TPA, and in the inflammatory conditions. PDCD4-protein is phosphorylated at 2 serines in the SCFβTRCP ubiquitin ligase binding sequences via EGF and/or TPA induced signaling pathway, ubiquitinated, by the ubiquitin ligase and degraded in the proteasome system. The PDCD4 protein synthesis is inhibited by microRNAs including miR21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachiko Matsuhashi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Saga Medical School, Saga University, 5-1-1 Nabeshima, Saga 849-8501, Japan.
| | - M Manirujjaman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Saga Medical School, Saga University, 5-1-1 Nabeshima, Saga 849-8501, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Hamajima
- Saga Food & Cosmetics Laboratory, Division of Food Manufacturing Industry Promotion, SAGA Regional Industry Support Center, 114 Yaemizo, Nabesima-Machi, Saga 849-0932, Japan.
| | - Iwata Ozaki
- Health Administration Center, Saga Medical School, Saga University, 5-1-1 Nabeshima, Saga 849-8501, Japan.
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Shailesh H, Zakaria ZZ, Baiocchi R, Sif S. Protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) dysregulation in cancer. Oncotarget 2018; 9:36705-36718. [PMID: 30613353 PMCID: PMC6291173 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.26404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) are known for their ability to catalyze methylation of specific arginine residues in a wide variety of cellular proteins, which are involved in a plethora of processes including signal transduction, transcription, and more recently DNA recombination. All members of the PRMT family can be grouped into three main classes depending on the type of methylation they catalyze. Type I PRMTs induce monomethylation and asymmetric dimethylation, while type II PRMTs catalyze monomethylation and symmetric dimethylation of specific arginine residues. In contrast, type III PRMTs carry out only monomethylation of arginine residues. In this review, we will focus on PRMT5, a type II PRMT essential for viability and normal development, which has been shown to be overexpressed in a wide variety of cancer cell types, owing it to the crucial role it plays in controlling key growth regulatory pathways. Furthermore, the role of PRMT5 in regulating expression and stability of key transcription factors that control normal stem cell function as well as cancer stem cell renewal will be discussed. We will review recent work that shows that through its ability to methylate various cellular proteins, PRMT5 functions as a master epigenetic regulator essential for growth and development, and we will highlight studies that have examined its dysregulation and the effects of its inhibition on cancer cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshita Shailesh
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Zain Z Zakaria
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Robert Baiocchi
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Saïd Sif
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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13
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Wang Q, Yang HS. The role of Pdcd4 in tumour suppression and protein translation. Biol Cell 2018; 110:10.1111/boc.201800014. [PMID: 29806708 PMCID: PMC6261700 DOI: 10.1111/boc.201800014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4), a tumour suppressor, is frequently down-regulated in various types of cancer. Pdcd4 has been demonstrated to efficiently suppress tumour promotion, progression and proliferation. The biochemical function of Pdcd4 is a protein translation inhibitor. Although the fact that Pdcd4 inhibits protein translation has been known for more than a decade, the mechanism by which Pdcd4 controls tumorigenesis through translational regulation of its target genes is still not fully understood. Recent studies show that Pdcd4 inhibits translation of stress-activated-protein kinase interacting protein 1 to suppress tumour invasion, depicting a picture of how Pdcd4 inhibits tumorigenesis through translational inhibition. Thus, understanding the mechanism of how Pdcd4 attenuates tumorigenesis by translational control should provide a new strategy for combating cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Hsin-Sheng Yang
- Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
- Markey Cancer Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
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14
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Abstract
PRMT5 catalyzes the mono- and symmetric dimethylation of the arginine N-guanidine group of a wide variety of target proteins including histones, transcriptional elongation factors, kinases and tumor suppressors by utilizing the essential co-factor S-adenosylmethionine as methyl source. PRMT5 overexpression has been linked to the progression of various diseases, including cancer, and is oftentimes associated with a poor prognosis. Therefore, PRMT5 is promoted as a valuable target for drug discovery approaches and was a subject matter in recent endeavors aiming for the development of specific PRMT5 inhibitors. This review will embrace the significance of PRMT5 as therapeutic target with respect to its molecular interdependencies in disease states as well as its implication in drug development approaches.
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15
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Comparative proteomics analysis of apoptotic Spodoptera frugiperda cells during p35 knockout Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus infection. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2016; 18:21-9. [PMID: 26922645 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Infection with Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) mutants lacking a functional p35 gene can induce host cell apoptosis, which provides the possibility to use the potential of these viruses in the biological control of pest insects. Nonetheless, the proteomics or the protein changes of Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells infected with p35 knockout AcMNPV have not yet been studied. To further improve the use of AcMNPV, we set out to analyze the protein composition and protein changes of Sf9 cells of different infection stages by isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) techniques. A total of 4004 sf9 proteins were identified by iTRAQ. After comparation of the significantly expressed 483 proteins from p35koAcMNPV-infected Sf9 cells and the significantly expressed 413 proteins from wtAcMNPV-infected Sf9 cells, we found that 226 proteins were specific to p35koAcMNPV-infected Sf9 cells. The 226 proteins were categorized according to GO classification for insects and were categorized into: biological processes, molecular functions and cellular components. Of interest, the most up-regulated proteins related to Epstein-Barr virus infection, RNA transport, Calcium signaling pathway, cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, oxidative phosphorylation and N-Glycan biosynthesis. Determination of the protein changes in p35 knockout AcMNPV-infected Sf9 cells would facilitate the better use of this virus-host cell interaction in pest insect control and other related fields.
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16
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The dual epigenetic role of PRMT5 in acute myeloid leukemia: gene activation and repression via histone arginine methylation. Leukemia 2015; 30:789-99. [PMID: 26536822 DOI: 10.1038/leu.2015.308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Changes in the enzymatic activity of protein arginine methyltransferase (PRMT) 5 have been associated with cancer; however, the protein's role in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has not been fully evaluated. Here, we show that increased PRMT5 activity enhanced AML growth in vitro and in vivo while PRMT5 downregulation reduced it. In AML cells, PRMT5 interacted with Sp1 in a transcription repressor complex and silenced miR-29b preferentially via dimethylation of histone 4 arginine residue H4R3. As Sp1 is also a bona fide target of miR-29b, the miR silencing resulted in increased Sp1. This event in turn led to transcription activation of FLT3, a gene that encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase. Inhibition of PRMT5 via sh/siRNA or a first-in-class small-molecule inhibitor (HLCL-61) resulted in significantly increased expression of miR-29b and consequent suppression of Sp1 and FLT3 in AML cells. As a result, significant antileukemic activity was achieved. Collectively, our data support a novel leukemogenic mechanism in AML where PRMT5 mediates both silencing and transcription of genes that participate in a 'yin-yang' functional network supporting leukemia growth. As FLT3 is often mutated in AML and pharmacologic inhibition of PRMT5 appears feasible, the PRMT5-miR-29b-FLT3 network should be further explored as a novel therapeutic target for AML.
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Qiu F, Huang J, Sui M. Targeting arginine metabolism pathway to treat arginine-dependent cancers. Cancer Lett 2015; 364:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2015.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Targeting the eIF4A RNA helicase as an anti-neoplastic approach. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2015; 1849:781-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Stopa N, Krebs JE, Shechter D. The PRMT5 arginine methyltransferase: many roles in development, cancer and beyond. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:2041-59. [PMID: 25662273 PMCID: PMC4430368 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1847-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2014] [Revised: 01/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational arginine methylation is responsible for regulation of many biological processes. The protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5, also known as Hsl7, Jbp1, Skb1, Capsuleen, or Dart5) is the major enzyme responsible for mono- and symmetric dimethylation of arginine. An expanding literature demonstrates its critical biological function in a wide range of cellular processes. Histone and other protein methylation by PRMT5 regulate genome organization, transcription, stem cells, primordial germ cells, differentiation, the cell cycle, and spliceosome assembly. Metazoan PRMT5 is found in complex with the WD-repeat protein MEP50 (also known as Wdr77, androgen receptor coactivator p44, or Valois). PRMT5 also directly associates with a range of other protein factors, including pICln, Menin, CoPR5 and RioK1 that may alter its subcellular localization and protein substrate selection. Protein substrate and PRMT5-MEP50 post-translation modifications induce crosstalk to regulate PRMT5 activity. Crystal structures of C. elegans PRMT5 and human and frog PRMT5-MEP50 complexes provide substantial insight into the mechanisms of substrate recognition and procession to dimethylation. Enzymological studies of PRMT5 have uncovered compelling insights essential for future development of specific PRMT5 inhibitors. In addition, newly accumulating evidence implicates PRMT5 and MEP50 expression levels and their methyltransferase activity in cancer tumorigenesis, and, significantly, as markers of poor clinical outcome, marking them as potential oncogenes. Here, we review the substantial new literature on PRMT5 and its partners to highlight the significance of understanding this essential enzyme in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Stopa
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - Jocelyn E. Krebs
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - David Shechter
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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Wigington CP, Jung J, Rye EA, Belauret SL, Philpot AM, Feng Y, Santangelo PJ, Corbett AH. Post-transcriptional regulation of programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) mRNA by the RNA-binding proteins human antigen R (HuR) and T-cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1). J Biol Chem 2014; 290:3468-87. [PMID: 25519906 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.631937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-transcriptional processing of mRNA transcripts plays a critical role in establishing the gene expression profile of a cell. Such processing events are mediated by a host of factors, including RNA-binding proteins and microRNAs. A number of critical cellular pathways are subject to regulation at multiple levels that allow fine-tuning of key biological responses. Programmed cell death 4 (PDCD4) is a tumor suppressor and an important modulator of mRNA translation that is regulated by a number of mechanisms, most notably as a target of the oncomiR, miR-21. Here, we provide evidence for post-transcriptional regulation of PDCD4 by the RNA-binding proteins, HuR and TIA1. Complementary approaches reveal binding of both HuR and TIA1 to the PDCD4 transcript. Consistent with a model where RNA-binding proteins modulate the PDCD4 transcript, knockdown of HuR and/or TIA1 results in a significant decrease in steady-state PDCD4 mRNA and protein levels. However, fractionation experiments suggest that the mode of regulation of the PDCD4 transcript likely differs in the cytoplasm and the nucleus as the pool of PDCD4 mRNA present in the cytoplasm is more stable than the nuclear pool of PDCD4 transcript. We observe a competitive mode of binding between HuR and TIA1 on the PDCD4 transcript in the cytoplasm, suggesting that these two factors dynamically interact with one another as well as the PDCD4 transcript to maintain tight control of PDCD4 levels. Overall, this study reveals an additional set of regulatory interactions that modulate the expression of PDCD4, a key pro-apoptotic factor, and also reveals new insights into how HuR and TIA1 functions are integrated to achieve such regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callie P Wigington
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell and Developmental Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Jeenah Jung
- the Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - Emily A Rye
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell and Developmental Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Sara L Belauret
- the School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Akahne M Philpot
- From the Department of Biochemistry and the Summer Scholars Research Program, Winship Cancer Institute, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, and
| | - Yue Feng
- the Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322
| | - Philip J Santangelo
- the Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
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