The inner membrane complex sub-compartment proteins critical for replication of the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii adopt a pleckstrin homology fold

Phosphoproteomic Analysis Reveals the Predominating Cellular Processes and the Involved Key Phosphoproteins Essential for the Proliferation of Toxoplasma gondii

PURPOSE

To explore the essential roles of phosphorylation in mediating the proliferation of T. gondii in its cell lytic life.

METHODS

We profiled the phosphoproteome data of T. gondii residing in HFF cells for 2 h and 6 h, representing the early- and late-stages of proliferation (ESP and LSP) within its first generation of division.

RESULTS

We identified 70 phosphoproteins, among which 8 phosphoproteins were quantified with the phosphorylation level significantly regulated. While only two of the eight phosphoproteins, GRA7 and TGGT1_242070, were significantly down-regulated at the transcriptional level in the group of LSP vs. ESP. Moreover, GO terms correlated with host membrane component were significantly enriched in the category of cellular component, suggesting phosphoprotein played important roles in acquiring essential substance from host cell via manipulating host membrane. Further GO analysis in the categories of molecular function and biological process and pathway analysis revealed that the cellular processes of glucose and lipid metabolism were regulated by T. gondii phosphoproteins such as PMCAA1, LIPIN, Pyk1 and ALD. Additionally, several phosphoproteins were enriched at the central nodes in the protein-protein interaction network, which may have essential roles in T. gondii proliferation including GAP45, MLC1, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, GRAs and so on.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the main cellular processes and key phosphoproteins crucial for the intracellular proliferation of T. gondii, which would provide clues to explore the roles of phosphorylation in regulating the development of tachyzoites and new insight into the mechanism of T. gondii development in vitro.

Structural and regulatory insights into the glideosome-associated connector from Toxoplasma gondii

The phylum of Apicomplexa groups intracellular parasites that employ substrate-dependent gliding motility to invade host cells, egress from the infected cells, and cross biological barriers. The glideosome-associated connector (GAC) is a conserved protein essential to this process. GAC facilitates the association of actin filaments with surface transmembrane adhesins and the efficient transmission of the force generated by myosin translocation of actin to the cell surface substrate. Here, we present the crystal structure of Toxoplasma gondii GAC and reveal a unique, supercoiled armadillo repeat region that adopts a closed ring conformation. Characterisation of the solution properties together with membrane and F-actin binding interfaces suggests that GAC adopts several conformations from closed to open and extended. A multi-conformational model for assembly and regulation of GAC within the glideosome is proposed.

Internal daughter formation of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites is coordinated by transcription factor TgAP2IX-5

Toxoplasma gondii rapidly propagates through endodyogeny of tachyzoites, a process in which daughter parasites divide within the cell of the mother parasite. Recent studies have revealed that transcription factors with AP2-domain participate in the process of cell division in T. gondii. However, the concise regulation of the division cycles by AP2 proteins is poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the transcription factor TgAP2IX-5 on the daughter cell formation in T. gondii. TgAP2IX-5 is a nuclear protein and is highly expressed during the S phase of the cell cycle of tachyzoites. TgAP2IX-5-disrupted strain showed a severe defect in replication and completely blocked lytic parasite growth. Following 3-indoleacetic acid treatment or without treatment of AP2IX-5-AID-3HA tagged strain for 30 min, 1 and 2 hr, the differentially expressed genes were 8, 54 and 202, respectively. Among these genes, the significantly downregulated ones were AP2 proteins, inner membrane complex (IMC) proteins and SAG-related proteins. Interestingly, loss of TgAP2IX-5 leads to a defect in internal daughter IMC formation and abnormalities in the morphology of organelles during cell division. Together, our study suggests that TgAP2IX-5 is crucial in regulating IMC formation of daughter cells in T. gondii.

A protein palmitoylation cascade regulates microtubule cytoskeleton integrity in Plasmodium

Morphogenesis of many protozoans depends on a polarized establishment of cytoskeletal structures. In malaria-causing parasites, this can be observed when a round zygote develops into an elongated motile ookinete within the mosquito stomach. This morphogenesis is mediated by the pellicle cytoskeletal structures, including the inner membrane complex (IMC) and the underlying subpellicular microtubules (SPMs). How the parasite maintains the IMC-SPM connection and establishes a dome-like structure of SPM to support cell elongation is unclear. Here, we show that palmitoylation of N-terminal cysteines of two IMC proteins (ISP1/ISP3) regulates the IMC localization of ISP1/ISP3 and zygote-to-ookinete differentiation. Palmitoylation of ISP1/ISP3 is catalyzed by an IMC-residing palmitoyl-S-acyl-transferase (PAT) DHHC2. Surprisingly, DHHC2 undergoes self-palmitoylation at C-terminal cysteines via its PAT activity, which controls DHHC2 localization in IMC after zygote formation. IMC-anchored ISP1 and ISP3 interact with microtubule component β-tubulin, serving as tethers to maintain the proper structure of SPM during zygote elongation. This study identifies the first PAT-substrate pair in malaria parasites and uncovers a protein palmitoylation cascade regulating microtubule cytoskeleton.

The Secreted Acid Phosphatase Domain-Containing GRA44 from Toxoplasma gondii Is Required for c-Myc Induction in Infected Cells

During host cell invasion, the eukaryotic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii forms a parasitophorous vacuole to safely reside within the cell, while it is partitioned from host cell defense mechanisms. From within this safe niche, parasites sabotage multiple host cell systems, including gene expression, apoptosis, and intracellular immune recognition, by secreting a large arsenal of effector proteins. Many parasite proteins studied for active host cell manipulative interactions have been kinases. The translocation of effectors from the parasitophorous vacuole into the host cell is mediated by a putative translocon complex, which includes the proteins MYR1, MYR2, and MYR3. Whether other proteins are involved in the structure or regulation of this putative translocon is not known. We have discovered that the secreted protein GRA44, which contains a putative acid phosphatase domain, interacts with members of this complex and is required for host cell effects downstream of effector secretion. We have determined that GRA44 is processed in a region with homology to sequences targeted by protozoan proteases of the secretory pathway and that both major cleavage fragments are secreted into the parasitophorous vacuole. Immunoprecipitation experiments showed that GRA44 interacts with a large number of secreted proteins, including MYR1. Importantly, conditional knockdown of GRA44 resulted in a lack of host cell c-Myc upregulation, which mimics the phenotype seen when members of the translocon complex are genetically disrupted. Thus, the putative acid phosphatase GRA44 is crucial for host cell alterations during Toxoplasma infection and is associated with the translocon complex which Toxoplasma relies upon for success as an intracellular pathogen.IMPORTANCE Approximately one-third of humans are infected with the parasite Toxoplasma gondiiToxoplasma infections can lead to severe disease in those with a compromised or suppressed immune system. Additionally, infections during pregnancy present a significant health risk to the developing fetus. Drugs that target this parasite are limited, have significant side effects, and do not target all disease stages. Thus, a thorough understanding of how the parasite propagates within a host is critical in the discovery of novel therapeutic targets. Toxoplasma replication requires that it enter the cells of the infected organism. In order to survive the environment inside a cell, Toxoplasma secretes a large repertoire of proteins, which hijack a number of important cellular functions. How these Toxoplasma proteins move from the parasite into the host cell is not well understood. Our work shows that the putative phosphatase GRA44 is part of a protein complex responsible for this process.

TgDrpC, an atypical dynamin-related protein in Toxoplasma gondii, is associated with vesicular transport factors and parasite division

Dynamin-related proteins (Drps) are involved in diverse processes such as organelle division and vesicle trafficking. The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii possesses three distinct Drps. TgDrpC, whose function remains unresolved, is unusual in that it lacks a conserved GTPase Effector Domain, which is typically required for function. Here, we show that TgDrpC localizes to cytoplasmic puncta; however, in dividing parasites, TgDrpC redistributes to the growing edge of the daughter cells. By conditional knockdown, we determined that loss of TgDrpC stalls division and leads to rapid deterioration of multiple organelles and the IMC. We also show that TgDrpC interacts with proteins that exhibit homology to those involved in vesicle transport, including members of the adaptor complex 2. Two of these proteins, a homolog of the adaptor protein 2 (AP-2) complex subunit alpha-1 and a homolog of the ezrin-radixin-moesin (ERM) family proteins, localize to puncta and associate with the daughter cells. Consistent with the association with vesicle transport proteins, re-distribution of TgDrpC to the IMC during division is dependent on post-Golgi trafficking. Together, these results support that TgDrpC contributes to vesicle trafficking and is critical for stability of parasite organelles and division.

A Toxoplasma gondii locus required for the direct manipulation of host mitochondria has maintained multiple ancestral functions

The Toxoplasma gondii locus mitochondrial association factor 1 (MAF1) encodes multiple paralogs, some of which mediate host mitochondrial association (HMA). Previous work showed that HMA was a trait that arose in T. gondii through neofunctionalization of an ancestral MAF1 ortholog. Structural analysis of HMA-competent and incompetent MAF1 paralogs (MAF1b and MAF1a, respectively) revealed that both paralogs harbor an ADP ribose binding macro-domain, with comparatively low (micromolar) affinity for ADP ribose. Replacing the 16 C-terminal residues of MAF1b with those of MAF1a abrogated HMA, and we also show that only three residues in the C-terminal helix are required for MAF1-mediated HMA. Importantly these same three residues are also required for the in vivo growth advantage conferred by MAF1b, providing a definitive link between in vivo proliferation and manipulation of host mitochondria. Co-immunoprecipitation assays reveal that the ability to interact with the mitochondrial MICOS complex is shared by HMA-competent and incompetent MAF1 paralogs and mutants. The weak ADPr coordination and ability to interact with the MICOS complex shared between divergent paralogs may represent modular ancestral functions for this tandemly expanded and diversified T. gondii locus.

Post-translational modifications as key regulators of apicomplexan biology: insights from proteome-wide studies

Parasites of the Apicomplexa phylum, such as Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii, undergo complex life cycles involving multiple stages with distinct biology and morphologies. Post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as phosphorylation, acetylation and glycosylation, regulate numerous cellular processes, playing a role in every aspect of cell biology. PTMs can occur on proteins at any time in their lifespan and through alterations of target protein activity, localization, protein-protein interactions, among other functions, dramatically increase proteome diversity and complexity. In addition, PTMs can be induced or removed on changes in cellular environment and state. Thus, PTMs are likely to be key regulators of developmental transitions, biology and pathogenesis of apicomplexan parasites. In this review we examine the roles of PTMs in both parasite-specific and conserved eukaryotic processes, and the potential crosstalk between PTMs, that together regulate the intricate lives of these protozoa.

Virus-Like Nanoparticle Vaccine Confers Protection against Toxoplasma gondii

The inner membrane complex (IMC) of Toxoplasma gondii as a peripheral membrane system has unique and critical roles in parasite replication, motility and invasion. Disruption of IMC sub-compartment protein produces a severe defect in T. gondii endodyogeny, the form of internal cell budding. In this study, we generated T. gondii virus-like particle particles (VLPs) containing proteins derived from IMC, and investigated their efficacy as a vaccine in mice. VLP vaccination induced Toxoplasma gondii-specific total IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a antibody responses in the sera and IgA antibody responses in the feces. Upon challenge infection with a lethal dose of T. gondii (ME49), all vaccinated mice survived, whereas all naïve control mice died. Vaccinated mice showed significantly reduced cyst load and cyst size in the brain. VLP vaccination also induced IgA and IgG antibody responses in feces and intestines, and antibody-secreting plasma cells, mixed Th1/Th2 cytokines and CD4+/CD8+ T cells from spleen. Taken together, these results indicate that non-replicating VLPs containing inner membrane complex of T. gondii represent a promising strategy for the development of a safe and effective vaccine to control the spread of Toxoplasma gondii infection.

The apicomplexan glideosome and adhesins - Structures and function

The apicomplexan family of pathogens, which includes Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii, are primarily obligate intracellular parasites and invade multiple cell types. These parasites express extracellular membrane protein receptors, adhesins, to form specific pathogen-host cell interaction complexes. Various adhesins are used to invade a variety of cell types. The receptors are linked to an actomyosin motor, which is part of a complex comprised of many proteins known as the invasion machinery or glideosome. To date, reviews on invasion have focused primarily on the molecular pathways and signals of invasion, with little or no structural information presented. Over 75 structures of parasite receptors and glideosome proteins have been deposited with the Protein Data Bank. These structures include adhesins, motor proteins, bridging proteins, inner membrane complex and cytoskeletal proteins, as well as co-crystal structures with peptides and antibodies. These structures provide information regarding key interactions necessary for target receptor engagement, machinery complex formation, how force is transmitted, and the basis of inhibitory antibodies. Additionally, these structures can provide starting points for the development of antibodies and inhibitory molecules targeting protein-protein interactions, with the aim to inhibit invasion. This review provides an overview of the parasite adhesin protein families, the glideosome components, glideosome architecture, and discuss recent work regarding alternative models.

Structural and functional divergence of the aldolase fold in Toxoplasma gondii

Parasites of the phylum Apicomplexa are highly successful pathogens of humans and animals worldwide. As obligate intracellular parasites, they have significant energy requirements for invasion and gliding motility that are supplied by various metabolic pathways. Aldolases have emerged as key enzymes involved in these pathways, and all apicomplexans express one or both of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F16BP) aldolase and 2-deoxyribose 5-phosphate (dR5P) aldolase (DERA). Intriguingly, Toxoplasma gondii, a highly successful apicomplexan parasite, expresses F16BP aldolase (TgALD1), d5RP aldolase (TgDERA), and a divergent dR5P aldolase-like protein (TgDPA) exclusively in the latent bradyzoite stage. While the importance of TgALD1 in glycolysis is well established and TgDERA is also likely to be involved in parasite metabolism, the detailed function of TgDPA remains elusive. To gain mechanistic insight into the function of different T. gondii aldolases, we first determined the crystal structures of TgALD1 and TgDPA. Structural analysis revealed that both aldolases adopt a TIM barrel fold accessorized with divergent secondary structure elements. Structural comparison of TgALD1 and TgDPA with members of their respective enzyme families revealed that, while the active-site residues are conserved in TgALD1, key catalytic residues are absent in TgDPA. Consistent with this observation, biochemical assays showed that, while TgALD1 was active on F16BP, TgDPA was inactive on dR5P. Intriguingly, both aldolases are competent to bind polymerized actin in vitro. Altogether, structural and biochemical analyses of T. gondii aldolase and aldolase-like proteins reveal diverse functionalization of the classic TIM barrel aldolase fold.