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Song P, Zhang X, Wang S, Xu W, Wang F, Fu R, Wei F. Microbial proteases and their applications. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1236368. [PMID: 37779686 PMCID: PMC10537240 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1236368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteases (proteinases or peptidases) are a class of hydrolases that cleave peptide chains in proteins. Endopeptidases are a type of protease that hydrolyze the internal peptide bonds of proteins, forming shorter peptides; exopeptidases hydrolyze the terminal peptide bonds from the C-terminal or N-terminal, forming free amino acids. Microbial proteases are a popular instrument in many industrial applications. In this review, the classification, detection, identification, and sources of microbial proteases are systematically introduced, as well as their applications in food, detergents, waste treatment, and biotechnology processes in the industry fields. In addition, recent studies on techniques used to express heterologous microbial proteases are summarized to describe the process of studying proteases. Finally, future developmental trends for microbial proteases are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Song
- College of Life Sciences, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
- Shandong Aobo Biotech Co. Ltd., Liaocheng, China
- Jiangxi Zymerck Biotech Co. Ltd., Nanchang, China
| | - Xue Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Shuhua Wang
- Shandong Aobo Biotech Co. Ltd., Liaocheng, China
| | - Wei Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Fei Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Rongzhao Fu
- Jiangxi Zymerck Biotech Co. Ltd., Nanchang, China
| | - Feng Wei
- College of Life Sciences, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
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Xu H, Casabianca LB. Dual Fluorescence and NMR Study for the Interaction between Xanthene Dyes and Nanoparticles. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:385-390. [PMID: 33356333 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c03020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent dyes and nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely used together to make novel biosensors, taking advantage of their unique characteristics. It is crucial to have techniques that enable us to gain detailed and high-resolution information regarding the interaction between NPs and fluorescent dyes. In this work, we chose rhodamine B (RhB) and amidine- and carboxylate-modified polystyrene (CML) NPs as models and employed both NMR (1H and STD-NMR) and optical (UV-vis and fluorescence) techniques to investigate the interaction between NPs and fluorescent dyes. From UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopy, we see that there are larger red shifts when rhodamine B binds to carboxylate-modified polystyrene NPs than amidine-modified NPs. Correspondingly, RhB has broader NMR peaks and a larger STD effect when binding to CML NPs than amidine NPs. Results from these two techniques validate each other. It is notable that the NMR techniques provide more reliable data than UV-vis and fluorescence methods. Moreover, we show that NMR techniques, especially STD-NMR, can provide more atomic-level binding geometry information. The higher STD effect of the smaller aromatic ring of RhB implies that this aromatic ring is closer to the surface of NPs when binding to polystyrene NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Leah Beck Casabianca
- Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
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Fenneteau J, Chauvin D, Griffiths AD, Nizak C, Cossy J. Synthesis of new hydrophilic rhodamine based enzymatic substrates compatible with droplet-based microfluidic assays. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 53:5437-5440. [PMID: 28462964 DOI: 10.1039/c7cc01506b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Here we report the conception, synthesis and evaluation of new hydrophilic rhodamine-based enzymatic substrates for detection of peptidase activity compatible with high-throughput screening using droplet-based microfluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Fenneteau
- Laboratoire de Chimie Organique, Institute of Chemistry, Biology and Innovation (CBI), UMR 8231, ESPCI Paris/CNRS, PSL Research University, 10 rue Vauquelin, 75231-Paris Cedex 05, France.
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Li X, Gao X, Shi W, Ma H. Design strategies for water-soluble small molecular chromogenic and fluorogenic probes. Chem Rev 2013; 114:590-659. [PMID: 24024656 DOI: 10.1021/cr300508p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1181] [Impact Index Per Article: 107.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohua Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100190, China
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Shi W, Ma H. Spectroscopic probes with changeable π-conjugated systems. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012; 48:8732-44. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cc33366j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Chen X, Pradhan T, Wang F, Kim JS, Yoon J. Fluorescent Chemosensors Based on Spiroring-Opening of Xanthenes and Related Derivatives. Chem Rev 2011; 112:1910-56. [DOI: 10.1021/cr200201z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1608] [Impact Index Per Article: 123.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqiang Chen
- Departments of Chemistry and Nano Science and of Bioinspired Science (WCU), Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
- State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Tuhin Pradhan
- Department of Chemistry, Korea University, Seoul 136-701, Korea
| | - Fang Wang
- Departments of Chemistry and Nano Science and of Bioinspired Science (WCU), Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
| | - Jong Seung Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Korea University, Seoul 136-701, Korea
| | - Juyoung Yoon
- Departments of Chemistry and Nano Science and of Bioinspired Science (WCU), Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Korea
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Terentyeva TG, Van Rossom W, Van der Auweraer M, Blank K, Hofkens J. Morpholinecarbonyl-Rhodamine 110 Based Substrates for the Determination of Protease Activity with Accurate Kinetic Parameters. Bioconjug Chem 2011; 22:1932-8. [DOI: 10.1021/bc2001038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana G. Terentyeva
- Department of Chemistry, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Wim Van Rossom
- Department of Chemistry, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Mark Van der Auweraer
- Department of Chemistry, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Kerstin Blank
- Department of Chemistry, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
- Department of Molecular Materials, Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Hofkens
- Department of Chemistry, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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Abstract
The early detection of many human diseases is crucial if they are to be treated successfully. Therefore, the development of imaging techniques that can facilitate early detection of disease is of high importance. Changes in the levels of enzyme expression are known to occur in many diseases, making their accurate detection at low concentrations an area of considerable active research. Activatable fluorescent probes show immense promise in this area. If properly designed they should exhibit no signal until they interact with their target enzyme, reducing the level of background fluorescence and potentially endowing them with greater sensitivity. The mechanisms of fluorescence changes in activatable probes vary. This review aims to survey the field of activatable probes, focusing on their mechanisms of action as well as illustrating some of the in vitro and in vivo settings in which they have been employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R Drake
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, 185 Berry Street, Suite 350, Box 0946, San Francisco, CA, 94107, USA
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Beija M, Afonso CAM, Martinho JMG. Synthesis and applications of Rhodamine derivatives as fluorescent probes. Chem Soc Rev 2009; 38:2410-33. [DOI: 10.1039/b901612k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1095] [Impact Index Per Article: 73.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Antalis TM, Shea-Donohue T, Vogel SN, Sears C, Fasano A. Mechanisms of disease: protease functions in intestinal mucosal pathobiology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 4:393-402. [PMID: 17607295 PMCID: PMC3049113 DOI: 10.1038/ncpgasthep0846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2007] [Accepted: 04/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Of all our organ systems, the gastrointestinal tract contains the highest levels of endogenous and exogenous proteases (also known as proteinases and peptidases); however, our understanding of their functions and interactions within the gastrointestinal tract is restricted largely to nutrient digestion. The gut epithelium is a sensor of the luminal environment, not only controlling digestive, absorptive and secretory functions, but also relaying information to the mucosal immune, vascular and nervous systems. These functions involve a complex array of cell types that elaborate growth factors, cytokines and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, the activity and availability of which are regulated by proteases. Proteolytic activity must be tightly regulated in the face of diverse environmental challenges, because unrestrained or excessive proteolysis leads to pathological gastrointestinal conditions. Moreover, enteric microbes and parasites can hijack proteolytic pathways through 'pathogen host mimicry'. Understanding how the protease balance is maintained and regulated in the intestinal epithelial cell microenvironment and how proteases contribute to physiological and pathological outcomes will undoubtedly contribute to the identification of new potential therapeutic targets for gastrointestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Alessio Fasano
- Correspondence, Mucosal Biology Research Center, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Room S345, HSF II Building, 20 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA,
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Abstract
Traditional small-molecule fluorophores are always fluorescent. This attribute can obscure valuable information in biological experiments. Here, we report on a versatile "latent" fluorophore that overcomes this limitation. At the core of the latent fluorophore is a derivative of rhodamine in which one nitrogen is modified as a urea. That modification enables rhodamine to retain half of its fluorescence while facilitating conjugation to a target molecule. The other nitrogen of rhodamine is modified with a "trimethyl lock", which enables fluorescence to be unmasked fully by a single user-designated chemical reaction. An esterase-reactive latent fluorophore was synthesized in high yield and attached covalently to a cationic protein. The resulting conjugate was not fluorescent in the absence of esterases. The enzymatic activity of esterases in endocytic vesicles and the cytosol educed fluorescence, enabling the time-lapse imaging of endocytosis into live human cells and thus providing unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution of this process. The modular design of this "fluorogenic label" enables the facile synthesis of an ensemble of small-molecule probes for the illumination of numerous biochemical and cell biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke D. Lavis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Tzu-Yuan Chao
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- To whom correspondence should be addressed:
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Graziano V, McGrath WJ, DeGruccio AM, Dunn JJ, Mangel WF. Enzymatic activity of the SARS coronavirus main proteinase dimer. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:2577-83. [PMID: 16647061 PMCID: PMC7094300 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2005] [Revised: 03/23/2006] [Accepted: 04/03/2006] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The enzymatic activity of the SARS coronavirus main proteinase dimer was characterized by a sensitive, quantitative assay. The new, fluorogenic substrate, (Ala‐Arg‐Leu‐Gln‐NH)2‐Rhodamine, contained a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS CoV) main proteinase consensus cleavage sequence and Rhodamine 110, one of the most detectable compounds known, as the reporter group. The gene for the enzyme was cloned in the absence of purification tags, expressed in Escherichia coli and the enzyme purified. Enzyme activity from the SARS CoV main proteinase dimer could readily be detected at low pM concentrations. The enzyme exhibited a high Km, and is unusually sensitive to ionic strength and reducing agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Graziano
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - William J. McGrath
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | | | - John J. Dunn
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Walter F. Mangel
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
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Boonacker E, Elferink S, Bardai A, Fleischer B, Van Noorden CJF. Fluorogenic substrate [Ala-Pro]2-cresyl violet but not Ala-Pro-rhodamine 110 is cleaved specifically by DPPIV activity: a study in living Jurkat cells and CD26/DPPIV-transfected Jurkat cells. J Histochem Cytochem 2003; 51:959-68. [PMID: 12810846 DOI: 10.1177/002215540305100711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluorogenic substrates [Ala-Pro](2)-cresyl violet and Ala-Pro-rhodamine 110 have been tested for microscopic detection of protease activity of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) in living cells. DPPIV activity is one of the many functions of the multifunctional or moonlighting protein CD26/DPPIV. As a model we used Jurkat cells, which are T-cells that lack CD26/DPPIV expression, and CD26/DPPIV-transfected Jurkat cells. Ala-Pro-rhodamine 110 is not fluorescent, but after proteolytic cleavage rhodamine 110 fluoresces. [Ala-Pro](2)-cresyl violet is fluorescent by itself but proteolytic cleavage into cresyl violet induces a shift to longer wavelengths. This phenomenon enables the simultaneous determination of local (intracellular) substrate and product concentrations, which is important for analysis of kinetics of the cleavage reaction. [Ala-Pro](2)-cresyl violet, but not Ala-Pro-rhodamine 110, appeared to be specific for DPPIV. When microscopic analysis is performed on living cells during the first minutes of the enzyme reaction, DPPIV activity can be precisely localized in cells with the use of [Ala-Pro](2)-cresyl violet. Fluorescent product is rapidly internalized into submembrane granules in transfected Jurkat cells and is redistributed intracellularly via internalization pathways that have been described for CD26/DPPIV. We conclude that [Ala-Pro](2)-cresyl violet is a good fluorogenic substrate to localize DPPIV activity in living cells when the correct wavelengths are used for excitation and emission and images are captured in the early stages of the enzyme reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Boonacker
- Department of Cell Biology and Histology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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