Mapping of functional domains of gamma-SNAP

NAPG mutation in family members with hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia in China

BACKGROUND

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) is a disease characterized by arteriovenous malformations in the skin and mucous membranes. We enrolled a large pedigree comprising 32 living members, and screened for mutations responsible for HHT.

METHODS

We performed whole-exome sequencing to identify novel mutations in the pedigree after excluding three previously reported HHT-related genes using Sanger sequencing. We then performed in silico functional analysis of candidate mutations that were obtained using a variant filtering strategy to identify mutations responsible for HHT.

RESULTS

After screening the HHT-related genes, activin A receptor-like type 1 (ACVRL1), endoglin (ENG), and SMAD family member 4 (SMAD4), we did not detect any co-segregated mutations in this pedigree. Whole-exome sequencing analysis of 7 members and Sanger sequencing analysis of 16 additional members identified a mutation (c.784A > G) in the NSF attachment protein gamma (NAPG) gene that co-segregated with the disease. Functional prediction showed that the mutation was deleterious and might change the conformational stability of the NAPG protein.

CONCLUSIONS

NAPG c.784A > G may potentially lead to HHT. These results expand the current understanding of the genetic contributions to HHT pathogenesis.

Rab11fip5 regulates telencephalon development via ephrinB1 recycling

Rab11 family-interacting protein 5 (Rab11fip5) is an adaptor protein that binds to the small GTPase Rab11, which has an important function in endosome recycling and trafficking of cellular proteins to the plasma membrane. Rab11fip5 is involved in many cellular processes, such as cytoskeleton rearrangement, iron uptake and exocytosis in neuroendocrine cells, and is also known as a candidate gene for autism-spectrum disorder. However, the role of Rab11fip5 during early embryonic development is not clearly understood. In this study, we identified Rab11fip5 as a protein that interacts with ephrinB1, a transmembrane ligand for Eph receptors. The PDZ binding motif in ephrinB1 and the Rab-binding domain in Rab11fip5 are necessary for their interaction in a complex. EphrinB1 and Rab11fip5 display overlapping expression in the telencephalon of developing amphibian embryos. The loss of Rab11fip5 function causes a reduction in telencephalon size and a decrease in the expression level of ephrinB1. Moreover, morpholino oligonucleotide-mediated knockdown of Rab11fip5 decreases cell proliferation in the telencephalon. The overexpression of ephrinB1 rescues these defects, suggesting that ephrinB1 recycling by the Rab11/Rab11fip5 complex is crucial for proper telencephalon development.

Proteomic and bioinformatic analyses of possible target-related proteins of gambogic acid in human breast carcinoma MDA-MB-231 cells

Gambogic acid (GA) is an anticancer agent in phase ‖b clinical trial in China but its mechanism of action has not been fully clarified. The present study was designed to search the possible target-related proteins of GA in cancer cells using proteomic method and establish possible network using bioinformatic analysis. Cytotoxicity and anti-migration effects of GA in MDA-MB-231 cells were checked using MTT assay, flow cytometry, wound migration assay, and chamber migration assay. Possible target-related proteins of GA at early (3 h) and late stage (24 h) of treatment were searched using a proteomic technology, two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). The possible network of GA was established using bioinformatic analysis. The intracellular expression levels of vimentin, keratin 18, and calumenin were determined using Western blotting. GA inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, GA exhibited anti-migration effects at non-toxic doses. In 2-DE analysis, totally 23 possible GA targeted proteins were found, including those with functions in cytoskeleton and transport, regulation of redox state, metabolism, ubiquitin-proteasome system, transcription and translation, protein transport and modification, and cytokine. Network analysis of these proteins suggested that cytoskeleton-related proteins might play important roles in the effects of GA. Results of Western blotting confirmed the cleavage of vimentin, increase in keratin 18, and decrease in calumenin levels in GA-treated cells. In summary, GA is a multi-target compound and its anti-cancer effects may be based on several target-related proteins such as cytoskeleton-related proteins.

Cortical Granule Exocytosis Is Mediated by Alpha-SNAP and N-Ethilmaleimide Sensitive Factor in Mouse Oocytes

Cortical granule exocytosis (CGE), also known as cortical reaction, is a calcium- regulated secretion that represents a membrane fusion process during meiotic cell division of oocytes. The molecular mechanism of membrane fusion during CGE is still poorly understood and is thought to be mediated by the SNARE pathway; nevertheless, it is unkown if SNAP (acronym for soluble NSF attachment protein) and NSF (acronym for N-ethilmaleimide sensitive factor), two key proteins in the SNARE pathway, mediate CGE in any oocyte model. In this paper, we documented the gene expression of α-SNAP, γ-SNAP and NSF in mouse oocytes. Western blot analysis showed that the expression of these proteins maintains a similar level during oocyte maturation and early activation. Their localization was mainly observed at the cortical region of metaphase II oocytes, which is enriched in cortical granules. To evaluate the function of these proteins in CGE we set up a functional assay based on the quantification of cortical granules metaphase II oocytes activated parthenogenetically with strontium. Endogenous α-SNAP and NSF proteins were perturbed by microinjection of recombinant proteins or antibodies prior to CGE activation. The microinjection of wild type α-SNAP and the negative mutant of α-SNAP L294A in metaphase II oocytes inhibited CGE stimulated by strontium. NEM, an irreversibly inhibitor of NSF, and the microinjection of the negative mutant NSF D1EQ inhibited cortical reaction. The microinjection of anti-α-SNAP and anti-NSF antibodies was able to abolish CGE in activated metaphase II oocytes. The microinjection of anti-γ SNAP antibody had no effect on CGE. Our findings indicate, for the first time in any oocyte model, that α-SNAP, γ-SNAP, and NSF are expressed in mouse oocytes. We demonstrate that α-SNAP and NSF have an active role in CGE and propose a working model.

γ-SNAP stimulates disassembly of endosomal SNARE complexes and regulates endocytic trafficking pathways

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) that reside in the target membranes and transport vesicles assemble into specific SNARE complexes to drive membrane fusion. N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) and its attachment protein, α-SNAP (encoded by NAPA), catalyze disassembly of the SNARE complexes in the secretory and endocytic pathways to recycle them for the next round of fusion events. γ-SNAP (encoded by NAPG) is a SNAP isoform, but its function in SNARE-mediated membrane trafficking remains unknown. Here, we show that γ-SNAP regulates the endosomal trafficking of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) and transferrin. Immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry analyses revealed that γ-SNAP interacts with a limited range of SNAREs, including endosomal ones. γ-SNAP, as well as α-SNAP, mediated the disassembly of endosomal syntaxin-7-containing SNARE complexes. Overexpression and small interfering (si)RNA-mediated depletion of γ-SNAP changed the morphologies and intracellular distributions of endosomes. Moreover, the depletion partially suppressed the exit of EGFR and transferrin from EEA1-positive early endosomes to delay their degradation and uptake. Taken together, our findings suggest that γ-SNAP is a unique SNAP that functions in a limited range of organelles - including endosomes - and their trafficking pathways.

Functional relevance of biased signaling at the angiotensin II type 1 receptor

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonists (AT1R blockers, or ARBs) are used commonly in the treatment of cardiovascular disorders such as heart failure and hypertension. Their clinical success arises from their ability to prevent deleterious Gα(q) protein activation downstream of AT1R, which leads to a decrease in morbidity and mortality. Recent studies have identified AT1R ligands that concurrently inhibit Gα(q) protein-dependent signaling and activate Gα(q) protein-independent/β-arrestin-dependent signaling downstream of AT1R, events that may actually improve cardiovascular performance more than conventional ARBs. The ability of such ligands to induce intracellular signaling events in an AT1R-β-arrestin-dependent manner while preventing AT1R-Gα(q) protein activity defines them as biased AT1R ligands. This mini-review will highlight recent studies that have defined biased signaling at the AT1R and discuss the possible clinical relevance of β-arrestin-biased AT1R ligands in the cardiovascular system.

Identification of the neuroblastoma-amplified gene product as a component of the syntaxin 18 complex implicated in Golgi-to-endoplasmic reticulum retrograde transport

Syntaxin 18, a soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF) attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein implicated in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane fusion, forms a complex with other SNAREs (BNIP1, p31, and Sec22b) and several peripheral membrane components (Sly1, ZW10, and RINT-1). In the present study, we showed that a peripheral membrane protein encoded by the neuroblastoma-amplified gene (NAG) is a subunit of the syntaxin 18 complex. NAG encodes a protein of 2371 amino acids, which exhibits weak similarity to yeast Dsl3p/Sec39p, an 82-kDa component of the complex containing the yeast syntaxin 18 orthologue Ufe1p. Under conditions favoring SNARE complex disassembly, NAG was released from syntaxin 18 but remained in a p31-ZW10-RINT-1 subcomplex. Binding studies showed that the extreme N-terminal region of p31 is responsible for the interaction with NAG and that the N- and the C-terminal regions of NAG interact with p31 and ZW10-RINT-1, respectively. Knockdown of NAG resulted in a reduction in the expression of p31, confirming their intimate relationship. NAG depletion did not substantially affect Golgi morphology and protein export from the ER, but it caused redistribution of Golgi recycling proteins accompanied by a defect in protein glycosylation. These results together suggest that NAG links between p31 and ZW10-RINT-1 and is involved in Golgi-to-ER transport.

Structure and dynamics of gamma-SNAP: insight into flexibility of proteins from the SNAP family

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein gamma (gamma-SNAP) is a member of an eukaryotic protein family involved in intracellular membrane trafficking. The X-ray structure of Brachydanio rerio gamma-SNAP was determined to 2.6 A and revealed an all-helical protein comprised of an extended twisted-sheet of helical hairpins with a helical-bundle domain on its carboxy-terminal end. Structural and conformational differences between multiple observed gamma-SNAP molecules and Sec17, a SNAP family protein from yeast, are analyzed. Conformational variation in gamma-SNAP molecules is matched with great precision by the two lowest frequency normal modes of the structure. Comparison of the lowest-frequency modes from gamma-SNAP and Sec17 indicated that the structures share preferred directions of flexibility, corresponding to bending and twisting of the twisted sheet motif. We discuss possible consequences related to the flexibility of the SNAP proteins for the mechanism of the 20S complex disassembly during the SNAP receptors recycling.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension: a disease of tethers, SNAREs and SNAPs?

Histological and electron microscopic studies over the past four decades have highlighted "plump," "enlarged" endothelial, smooth muscle, and fibroblastic cellular elements with increased endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi stacks, and vacuolation in pulmonary arterial lesions in human and in experimental (hypoxia and monocrotaline) pulmonary arterial hypertension. However, the contribution of disrupted intracellular membrane trafficking in the pathobiology of this disease has received insufficient attention. Recent studies suggest a pathogenetic role of the disruption of intracellular trafficking of vasorelevant proteins and cell-surface receptors in the development of this disease. The purpose of this essay is to highlight the molecular regulation of vesicular trafficking by membrane tethers, SNAREs and SNAPs, and to suggest how their dysfunction, directly and/or indirectly, might contribute to development of pulmonary arterial hypertension in experimental models and in humans, including that due to mutations in bone morphogenetic receptor type 2.

Cellular functions of NSF: not just SNAPs and SNAREs

N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor (NSF) is an ATPases associated with various cellular activities protein (AAA), broadly required for intracellular membrane fusion. NSF functions as a SNAP receptor (SNARE) chaperone which binds, through soluble NSF attachment proteins (SNAPs), to SNARE complexes and utilizes the energy of ATP hydrolysis to disassemble them thus facilitating SNARE recycling. While this is a major function of NSF, it does seem to interact with other proteins, such as the AMPA receptor subunit, GluR2, and beta2-AR and is thought to affect their trafficking patterns. New data suggest that NSF may be regulated by transient post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation and nitrosylation. These new aspects of NSF function as well as its role in SNARE complex dynamics will be discussed.

Novel putative targets of N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion protein (NSF) and alpha/beta soluble NSF attachment proteins (SNAPs) include the Pak-binding nucleotide exchange factor betaPIX

N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion protein (NSF) is a chaperone that plays a crucial role in the fusion of vesicles with target membranes. NSF mediates the ATP-consuming dissociation of a core protein complex that assembles during vesicle fusion and it thereby recharges the fusion machinery to perform multiple rounds of fusion. The binding of NSF to the core complex is mediated by co-chaperones named soluble NSF attachment proteins (SNAPs), for which three isoforms (alpha, beta and gamma) are known. Here, we sought to identify novel targets of the NSF-SNAP complex. A yeast two-hybrid screen using the brain specific betaSNAP isoform as bait revealed, as expected, NSF and several isoforms of the SNARE protein syntaxin as interactors. In addition, three isoforms of the reticulon protein family and two isoforms of BNIP3 interacted with betaSNAP. A yeast two-hybrid screen using NSF as bait identified Rab11-FIP3 and the Pak-binding nucleotide exchange factor betaPIX as putative binding partners. betaPIX interacts with recombinant NSF in co-sedimentation assays and the two proteins may be co-immunoprecipitated. A leucine zipper (LZ) motif within the C-terminus of betaPIX mediates binding to NSF; however, this fragment of betaPIX does not exhibit dominant negative effects in a cellular assay. In summary, our results support the evolving view that NSF has numerous targets in addition to conventional SNARE complexes.

N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor is required for fusion of the C. elegans uterine anchor cell

The fusion of the Caenorhabditis elegans uterine anchor cell (AC) with the uterine-seam cell (utse) is an excellent model system for studying cell-cell fusion, which is essential to animal development. We obtained an egg-laying defective (Egl) mutant in which the AC fails to fuse with the utse. This defect is highly specific: other aspects of utse development and other cell fusions appear to occur normally. We find that defect is due to a missense mutation in the nsf-1 gene, which encodes N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor (NSF), an intracellular membrane fusion factor. There are two NSF-1 isoforms, which are expressed in distinct tissues through two separate promoters. NSF-1L is expressed in the uterus, including the AC. We find that nsf-1 is required cell-autonomously in the AC for its fusion with the utse. Our results establish AC fusion as a paradigm for studying cell fusion at single cell resolution and demonstrate that the NSF ATPase is a key player in this process.

The SNARE protein family of Leishmania major

Background

Leishmania major is a protozoan parasite with a highly polarised cell shape that depends upon endocytosis and exocytosis from a single area of the plasma membrane, the flagellar pocket. SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor adaptor proteins receptors) are key components of the intracellular vesicle-mediated transports that take place in all eukaryotic cells. They are membrane-bound proteins that facilitate the docking and fusion of vesicles with organelles. The recent availability of the genome sequence of L. major has allowed us to assess the complement of SNAREs in the parasite and to investigate their location in comparison with metazoans.

Results

Bioinformatic searches of the L. major genome revealed a total of 27 SNARE domain-containing proteins that could be classified in structural groups by phylogenetic analysis. 25 of these possessed the expected features of functional SNAREs, whereas the other two could represent kinetoplastid-specific proteins that might act as regulators of the SNARE complexes. Other differences of Leishmania SNAREs were the absence of double SNARE domain-containing and of the brevin classes of these proteins. Members of the Qa group of Leishmania SNAREs showed differential expressions profiles in the two main parasite forms whereas their GFP-tagging and in vivo expression revealed localisations in the Golgi, late endosome/lysosome and near the flagellar pocket.

Conclusion

The early-branching eukaryote L. major apparently possess a SNARE repertoire that equals in number the one of metazoans such as Drosophila, showing that the machinery for vesicle fusion is well conserved throughout the eukaryotes. However, the analysis revealed the absence of certain types of SNAREs found in metazoans and yeast, while suggesting the presence of original SNAREs as well as others with unusual localisation. This study also presented the intracellular localisation of the L. major SNAREs from the Qa group and reveals that these proteins could be useful as organelle markers in this parasitic protozoon.

A ubiquitous membrane fusion protein αSNAP: a potential therapeutic target for cancer, diabetes and neurological disorders?

Alpha soluble NSF attachment protein (alphaSNAP) is a ubiquitous and indispensable component of membrane fusion machinery. Deletion of alphaSNAP is embryonically lethal. Yet, there is accumulating evidence that milder alterations in expression levels of alphaSNAP may be associated with a number of specific pathological conditions, such as several neurological disorders, Type 2 diabetes and aggressive neuroendocrine tumours. Here, the authors review the evidence available for animal models and for humans, and discuss possible therapeutic approaches that may target alphaSNAP.

Genomic sequence analysis of a potential QTL region for fat trait on pig chromosome 6

On pig chromosome 6, the SW71 microsatellite is located in the region corresponding to several quantitative trait loci (QTL), such as those for intramuscular fat content and for body weight at 4 weeks of age. The genomic sequence of approximately 909 kb was obtained from seven BAC clones encompassing the SW71 region corresponding to human 18q11.21-q11.22. By searching the NCBI GenBank using BLASTX and BLASTN, this 909-kb segment was found to contain eight genes, RAB31, TXNDC2, VAPA, APCDD1, NAPG, FAM38B, C18orf30, and C18orf58, and one putative gene (DN119777). The average G + C content in the sequence of this contig was 45.75% and 33 CpG islands were detected. CpG islands were scattered throughout the region in which most of the putative genes were located. Dense CpG islands of approximately 840 bp were observed, including within the 5' UTR and exon 1 of the orthologs of the RAB31, VAPA, APCDD1, and NAPG genes. Comparative analysis of conserved segments of six species showed that K(a)/K(s) ratios of the TXNDC2 gene in collinear and rearranged segments were significantly different at 4.1 and 1.3, respectively. In conclusion, we demonstrated the genomic organization of pig chromosome 6, including the gene order surrounding SW71, which provides important information for comparative mapping. Moreover, the genes revealed in this study may be positional candidate genes associated with QTL on chromosome 6 that affect fat deposition in pigs.

SNAREs and traffic

SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) are now generally accepted to be the major players in the final stage of the docking and the subsequent fusion of diverse vesicle-mediated transport events. The SNARE-mediated process is conserved evolutionally from yeast to human, as well as mechanistically and structurally across different transport events in eukaryotic cells. In the post-genomic era, a fairly complete list of "all" SNAREs in several organisms (including human) can now be made. This review aims to summarize the key properties and the mechanism of action of SNAREs in mammalian cells.

Molecular cytogenetic characterization of recurrent translocation breakpoints in bizarre parosteal osteochondromatous proliferation (Nora’s lesion)

Bizarre parosteal osteochondromatous proliferation (BPOP), or Nora's lesion, is a rare tumorous lesion with aggressive growth that affects primarily the small tubular bones in the distal extremities and often recurs after excision. No previous cytogenetic data on BPOP are available. In the present study, lesions from 5 patients were investigated by chromosome banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses. Patient age ranged from 24 to 46 years, and the lesions were located in the fingers in 4 cases and in a toe in 1 case. Histological sections from all 5 tumors were characterized by a mixture of hypercellular cartilage, cancellous bone, and spindle cell components. Samples from 2 patients were available for cytogenetic analysis. One of these showed a normal female karyotype, and the other revealed a balanced translocation, t(1;17)(q32;q21), as the sole anomaly. The translocation was further characterized by 3-color metaphase FISH analyses, using 17 1q32-specific and 18 17q21-specific bacterial artificial chromosome probes, to map the precise location of the breakpoints. Split signals were detected by the RP11-99A19 probe in chromosome 1 and by the RP11-219F9 probe in chromosome 17. To determine whether these rearrangements are characteristic features of BPOP, paraffin-embedded tissue sections from all 5 patients were investigated by interphase FISH analyses. All 5 cases had a break in 1q32, and 4 of the 5 cases showed a break in the 17q21 region. The results strongly indicate that t(1;17)(q32;q21), or variant translocations involving 1q32, are recurrent and unique aberrations in BPOP. Several genes are located within the 2 sequences spanning the breakpoints, and further studies should be performed to determine whether any of these are involved in the formation of a fusion gene.

Multiple binding proteins suggest diverse functions for the N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor

The hexameric ATPase, N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor (NSF), is essential to vesicular transport and membrane fusion because it affects the conformations and associations of the soluble NSF attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins. NSF binds SNAREs through adaptors called soluble NSF attachment proteins (alpha- or beta-SNAP) and disassembles SNARE complexes to recycle the monomers. NSF contains three domains, two nucleotide-binding domains (NSF-D1 and -D2) and an amino terminal domain (NSF-N) that is required for SNAP-SNARE complex binding. Mutagenesis studies indicate that a cleft between the two sub-domains of NSF-N is critical for binding. The structural conservation of N domains in NSF, p97/VCP, and VAT suggests that a similar type of binding site could mediate substrate recognition by other AAA proteins. In addition to SNAP-SNARE complexes, NSF also binds other proteins and protein complexes such as AMPA receptor subunits (GluR2), beta2-adrenergic receptor, beta-Arrestin1, GATE-16, LMA1, rabs, and rab-containing complexes. The potential for these interactions indicates a broader role for NSF in the assembly/disassembly cycles of several cellular complexes and suggests that NSF may have specific regulatory effects on the functions of the proteins involved in these complexes. The structural requirements for these interactions and their physiological significance will be discussed.

Gaf-1b is an alternative splice variant of Gaf-1/Rip11

Gaf-1/Rip11 encoded by the clone KIAA0857 participates in endosomal recycling through the interaction with both gamma-SNAP, a member of the soluble NSF attachment protein family, and a small GTPase, Rab11. Gaf-1/Rip11 and other Rab11-interacting proteins constitute a novel protein family that is involved in the endocytic pathways. Here we report the presence of an alternative splice variant of Gaf-1/Rip11 named Gaf-1b. Gaf-1b also interacts with gamma-SNAP and is expressed ubiquitously in tissues except for liver. Subcellular fractionation analysis revealed that Gaf-1b, as well as Gaf-1/Rip11, is mainly present in the microsomal fraction. Overexpression of Gaf-1b, like that of Gaf-1/Rip11, affected the morphology of recycling endosomes. These results suggest that Gaf-1b has a similar function to Gaf-1/Rip11.