The Role of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1C and Cry1E Separate Structural Domains in the Interaction with Spodoptera littoralis Gut Epithelial Cells

In-Silico Determination of Insecticidal Potential of Vip3Aa-Cry1Ac Fusion Protein Against Lepidopteran Targets Using Molecular Docking

Study and research of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) transgenic plants have opened new ways to combat insect pests. Over the decades, however, insect pests, especially the Lepidopteran, have developed tolerance against Bt delta-endotoxins. Such issues can be addressed through the development of novel toxins with greater toxicity and affinity against a broad range of insect receptors. In this computational study, functional domains of Bacillus thuringiensis crystal delta-endotoxin (Cry1Ac) insecticidal protein and vegetative insecticidal protein (Vip3Aa) have been fused to develop a broad-range Vip3Aa-Cry1Ac fusion protein. Cry1Ac and Vip3Aa are non-homologous insecticidal proteins possessing receptors against different targets within the midgut of insects. The insecticidal proteins were fused to broaden the insecticidal activity. Molecular docking analysis of the fusion protein against aminopeptidase-N (APN) and cadherin receptors of five Lepidopteran insects (Agrotis ipsilon, Helicoverpa armigera, Pectinophora gossypiella, Spodoptera exigua, and Spodoptera litura) revealed that the Ser290, Ser293, Leu337, Thr340, and Arg437 residues of the fusion protein are involved in the interaction with insect receptors. The Helicoverpa armigera cadherin receptor, however, showed no interaction, which might be due to either loss or burial of interactive residues inside the fusion protein. These findings revealed that the Vip3Aa-Cry1Ac fusion protein has a strong affinity against Lepidopteran insect receptors and hence has a potential to be an efficient broad-range insecticidal protein.

A Spodoptera exigua cadherin serves as a putative receptor for Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ca toxin and shows differential enhancement of Cry1Ca and Cry1Ac toxicity

Crystal toxin Cry1Ca from Bacillus thuringiensis has an insecticidal spectrum encompassing lepidopteran insects that are tolerant to current commercially used B. thuringiensis crops (Bt crops) expressing Cry1A toxins and may be useful as a potential bioinsecticide. The mode of action of Cry1A is fairly well understood. However, whether Cry1Ca interacts with the same receptor proteins as Cry1A remains unproven. In the present paper, we first cloned a cadherin-like gene, SeCad1b, from Spodoptera exigua (relatively susceptible to Cry1Ca). SeCad1b was highly expressed in the larval gut but scarcely detected in fat body, Malpighian tubules, and remaining carcass. Second, we bacterially expressed truncated cadherin rSeCad1bp and its interspecific homologue rHaBtRp from Helicoverpa armigera (more sensitive to Cry1Ac) containing the putative toxin-binding regions. Competitive binding assays showed that both Cry1Ca and Cry1Ac could bind to rSeCad1bp and rHaBtRp, and they did not compete with each other. Third, Cry1Ca ingestion killed larvae and decreased the weight of surviving larvae. Dietary introduction of SeCad1b double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) reduced approximately 80% of the target mRNA and partially alleviated the negative effect of Cry1Ca on larval survival and growth. Lastly, rSeCad1bp and rHaBtRp differentially enhanced the negative effects of Cry1Ca and Cry1Ac on the larval mortalities and growth of S. exigua and H. armigera. Thus, we provide the first lines of evidence to suggest that SeCad1b from S. exigua is a functional receptor of Cry1Ca.

Insect tolerance to the crystal toxins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab is mediated by the binding of monomeric toxin to lipophorin glycolipids causing oligomerization and sequestration reactions

Endotoxins from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis are used worldwide to control insect pests and vectors of diseases. Despite extensive use of the toxins as sprays and in transgenic crops, their mode of action is still not completely known. Here we show that two crystal toxins binding to different glycoprotein receptors have similar glycolipid binding properties. The glycolipid binding domain was identified in a recombinant peptide representing the domain II of the crystal toxin Cry1Ac (M-peptide). The recombinant M-peptide was isolated from bacterial lysates as a mixture of monomers and dimers and formed tetramers upon binding to glycolipid microvesicles from gut tissues and lipid particles from hemolymph plasma. Likewise, when mature toxins and M-peptides where mixed with plasma, these peptides bind to lipid particles and can be separated with lipophorin particles on low-density gradients. When mature toxin and M-peptides are added to lipid particles in increasing amounts, the peptide-particle complexes form higher aggregates that are similar to aggregates formed in low-density gradients in the presence of the toxin. This could indicate that glycolipids on lipid particles are possible targets for toxin monomers in the gut lumen, which upon binding to the glycolipids form tetramers and aggregate particles and thereby sequester the toxin inside the gut lumen before it can interact with receptors on the brush border membrane. The implication is that domain II interacting with glycolipids mediate tolerance to the toxin that is separate from interaction of the toxin with glycoprotein receptors causing toxicity.

Effect of Bt broccoli and resistant genotype of Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) on development and host acceptance of the parasitoid Diadegma insulare (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)

The ecological implications on biological control of insecticidal transgenic plants, which produce crystal (Cry) proteins from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), remain a contentious issue and affect risk assessment decisions. In this study, we used a unique system of resistant insects, Bt plants and a parasitoid to critically evaluate this issue. The effects of broccoli type (normal or expressing Cry1Ac protein) and insect genotype (susceptible or Cry1Ac-resistant) of Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) were examined for their effects on the development and host foraging behavior of the parasitoid, Diadegma insulare (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) over two generations. Parasitism rate and development of D. insulare were not significantly different when different genotypes (Bt-resistant or susceptible) of insect host larvae fed on non-Bt broccoli plants. D. insulare could not discriminate between resistant and susceptible genotypes of P. xylostella, nor between Bt and normal broccoli plants with different genotypes of P. xylostella feeding on them. No D. insulare could emerge from Bt broccoli-fed susceptible and heterozygous P. xylostella larvae because these larvae were unable to survive on Bt broccoli. The parasitism rate, developmental period, pupal and adult weights of D. insulare that had developed on Bt broccoli-fed Cry1Ac-resistant P. xylostella larvae were not significantly different from those that developed on non-Bt broccoli-fed larvae. Female D. insulare emerged from Cry1Ac-resistant P. xylostella that fed on Bt plants could successfully parasitize P. xylostella larvae. The life parameters of the subsequent generation of D. insulare from P. xylostella reared on Bt broccoli were not significantly different from those from non-Bt broccoli. The Cry1Ac protein was detected in P. xylostella and in D. insulare when hosts fed on Bt broccoli. These results are the first to indicate that Cry1Ac did not harm the development or host acceptance of an important endoparasitoid after two generations of exposure. We suggest that using other Bt crops and resistant insect species would likely lead to similar conclusions about the safety of the presently used Bt proteins on parasitoids.

Recent developments and future prospects in insect pest control in transgenic crops

The adoption of insect-resistant transgenic crops has been increasing annually at double-digit rates since the commercial release of first-generation maize and cotton expressing a single modified Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Bt) nine years ago. Studies have shown that these Bt crops can be successfully deployed in agriculture, which has led to a decrease in pesticide usage, and that they are environmentally benign. However, the sustainability and durability of pest resistance continues to be discussed. In this review, we focus on the science that underpins second- and third-generation insect-resistant transgenic plants and examine the appropriateness and relevance of models that are currently being used to determine deployment strategies to maximize sustainability and durability. We also review strategies that are being developed for novel approaches to transgenic insect pest control.

Cell-cycle-dependent resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1C toxin in Sf9 cells

The Sf9 cell line, derived from the moth Spodoptera frugiperda, is highly and specifically sensitive to the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1C toxin. Upon exposure to Cry1C, ionic pores are formed in the plasma membrane leading to cell swelling and death. Here, we describe a unique transient tolerance to Cry1C of dividing cells, which allowed completion of the division process in the presence of Cry1C. Correlatively, arresting the cells at G2-M phase by nocodazole treatment rendered them insensitive to Cry1C. When the arresting agent was removed, the cells completed their division and gradually regained Cry1C sensitivity. In comparison to normal cells with 1-2% cell-division frequency, the M-phase arrested cells bound less toxin in binding assays. Moreover, no lipid rafts could be isolated from the membranes of M-phase arrested cells. Caveolin-1, identified here for the first time in insect cells, was immunodetected as a lipid raft component of normal cells, but was only present in the membrane-soluble fraction of G2-M-arrested cells. Thus M-phase-linked changes in lipid raft organization may account for diminished Cry1C binding and toxicity. Furthermore, considering the pivotal role of lipid rafts in different cell functions of many cell types, the lack of organized lipid rafts in dividing cells may transiently affect cell susceptibility to pathogens, toxins and other lipid raft-linked functions.

Mutations in the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ca toxin demonstrate the role of domains II and III in specificity towards Spodoptera exigua larvae

Several mutants of the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ca toxin affected with regard to specific activity towards Spodoptera exigua were studied. Alanine was used to replace single residues in loops 2 and 3 of domain II (mutant pPB19) and to replace residues 541-544 in domain III (mutant pPB20). Additionally, a Cry1Ca mutant combining all mutations was constructed (mutant pPB21). Toxicity assays showed a marked decrease in toxicity against S. exigua for all mutants, while they retained their activity against Manduca sexta, confirming the importance of these residues in determining insect specificity. Parameters for binding to the specific receptors in BBMV (brush border membrane vesicles) of S. exigua were determined for all toxins. Compared with Cry1Ca, the affinity of mutant pPB19 was slightly affected (2-fold lower), whereas the affinity of the mutants with an altered domain III (pPB20 and pPB21) was approx. 8-fold lower. Activation of Cry1Ca protoxin by incubation with S. exigua or M. sexta BBMV revealed the transient formation of an oligomeric form of Cry1Ca. The presence of this oligomeric form was tested in the activation of the different Cry1Ca mutants, and we found that those mutated in domain II (pPB19 and pPB21) could not generate the oligomeric form when activated by S. exigua BBMV. In contrast, when oligomerization was tested using BBMV prepared from M. sexta, all of the Cry1Ca mutants showed the formation of a similar oligomeric form as did the wild-type toxin. Our results show how modification of insect specificity can be achieved by manipulation of different parts of the toxin structure involved in different steps of the mode of action of B. thuringiensis toxins.