Glycoprotein hormone assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum: II. Multiple roles of a redox sensitive beta-subunit disulfide switch

Expression Profiling, Downstream Signaling, and Inter-subunit Interactions of GPA2/GPB5 in the Adult Mosquito Aedes aegypti

GPA2/GPB5 and its receptor constitute a glycoprotein hormone-signaling system native to the genomes of most vertebrate and invertebrate organisms. Unlike the well-studied gonadotropins and thyrotropin, the exact function of GPA2/GPB5 remains elusive, and whether it elicits its functions as heterodimers, homodimers or as independent monomers remains unclear. Here, the glycoprotein hormone signaling system was investigated in adult mosquitoes, where GPA2 and GPB5 subunit expression was mapped and modes of its signaling were characterized. In adult Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, GPA2 and GPB5 transcripts co-localized to bilateral pairs of neuroendocrine cells, positioned within the first five abdominal ganglia of the central nervous system. Unlike GPA2/GPB5 homologs in human and fly, GPA2/GPB5 subunits in A. aegypti lacked evidence of heterodimerization. Rather, cross-linking analysis to determine subunit interactions revealed A. aegypti GPA2 and GPB5 subunits may form homodimers, although treatments with independent subunits did not demonstrate receptor activity. Since mosquito GPA2/GPB5 heterodimers were not evident by heterologous expression, a tethered fusion construct was generated for expression of the subunits as a single polypeptide chain to mimic heterodimer formation. Our findings revealed A. aegypti LGR1 elicited constitutive activity with elevated levels of cAMP. However, upon treatment with recombinant tethered GPA2/GPB5, an inhibitory G protein (Gi/o) signaling cascade is initiated and forskolin-induced cAMP production is inhibited. These results further support the notion that heterodimerization is a requirement for glycoprotein hormone receptor activation and provide novel insight to how signaling is achieved for GPA2/GPB5, an evolutionary ancient neurohormone.

Structure-function relationships of glycoprotein hormones and their subunits' ancestors

Glycoprotein hormones (GPHs) are the most complex molecules with hormonal activity. They exist only in vertebrates but the genes encoding their subunits' ancestors are found in most vertebrate and invertebrate species although their roles are still unknown. In the present report, we review the available structural and functional data concerning GPHs and their subunits' ancestors.

Human lutropin (hLH) and choriogonadotropin (CG) are assembled by different pathways: a model of hLH assembly

The glycoprotein hormones are all structurally related heterodimers consisting of an α-subunit and a ligand-specific β-subunit that confers their unique biological activity. Crystal structures showed how the β-subunit surrounds a part of the α-subunit, and we showed the existence of the two mechanisms responsible for that assembly. In human choriogonadotropin, the β-subunit is folded before the subunits dock, and the α-subunit becomes incorporated into the dimer by a mechanism we termed "threading," passing between parts of the preassembled β-subunit. Here, we show that the human lutropin β-subunit is not folded completely prior to its interaction with the α-subunit and show that docking of the subunits enables the α-subunit to serve as a chaperone to the β-subunit. Based on data described here, we propose that the α-subunit facilitates formation of the human lutropin β-subunit by two mechanisms. First, the cystine knot of the α-subunit potentiates formation of the β-subunit cystine knot, and second, contacts between α-subunit loop 2 and a hydrophobic tail in the β-subunit facilitate formation of the seatbelt latch disulfide, which stabilizes the heterodimer. The primary influence of the α-subunit was seen when the hydrophobic tail was present or absent, but the secondary mechanism was required only when the hydrophobic tail of the β-subunit was present. During the evolution of human choriogonadotropin, neither of these α-subunit roles was necessary for folding of the β-subunit. The complex mechanism for lutropin assembly may be required to provide an additional control on its positive feedback function in vertebrate reproduction.

Molecular characterization and quantification of sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) gonadotropins and their receptors: reproductive dysfunction in female captive broodstock

Efforts to establish an aquaculture industry for sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) are constrained by reproductive dysfunction in wild-caught fish and by lack of reproduction of F1 females. Toward a better understanding of the reproductive dysfunction of captive broodstock, full-length cDNAs encoding the sablefish gonadotropin subunits (fshb, lhb and cga) and their receptors (fshr and lhcgr) were cloned, sequenced and quantitative real-time PCR assays developed. Sablefish gonadotropin subunits display some unique features, such as two additional Cys residues in the N-terminal region of Fshb and a lack of potential N-glycosylation sites in Fshb and Lhb, whereas Fshr and Lhcgr possess conserved structural characteristics described in other vertebrates. Wild females captured in fall completed gametogenesis in captivity the next spawning season, whereas females captured three months earlier, during summer, failed to mature. Interestingly, these wild non-maturing females exhibited similar reproductive features as prepubertal F1 females, including low levels of pituitary gonadotropin and ovarian receptor mRNAs and plasma sex steroids, and ovarian follicles arrested at the perinucleolus stage. In conclusion, this study described the cloning, molecular characterization and development of qPCRs for sablefish gonadotropins and their receptors. Rearing conditions may impair vitellogenic growth of ovarian follicles in sablefish, compromising the reproductive success of broodstock.

Synthesis and secretion of gonadotropins including structure-function correlates

The synthesis and secretion of the gonadotropic hormones involves coordination of signal transduction, gene expression, protein translation, post-translational folding and modification and finally secretion. The production of biologically active gonadotropin thus requires appropriately folded and glycosylated subunits that assemble to form the heterodimeric hormone. Here we overview recent literature on regulation of gonadotropin subunit gene expression and current understanding of the assembly and secretion of biologically active gonadotropic hormones. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic potential of understanding glycosylation function towards designing new forms of gonadotropins based on observations of physiologically relevant parameters such as age related glycosylation changes.

Comparative structure analyses of cystine knot-containing molecules with eight aminoacyl ring including glycoprotein hormones (GPH) alpha and beta subunits and GPH-related A2 (GPA2) and B5 (GPB5) molecules

BACKGROUND

Cystine-knot (cys-knot) structure is found in a rather large number of secreted proteins and glycoproteins belonging to the TGFbeta and glycoprotein hormone (GPH) superfamilies, many of which are involved in endocrine control of reproduction. In these molecules, the cys-knot is formed by a disulfide (SS) bridge penetrating a ring formed by 8, 9 or 10 amino-acid residues among which four are cysteine residues forming two SS bridges. The glycoprotein hormones Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) and Chorionic Gonadotropin (CG) are heterodimers consisting of non-covalently associated alpha and beta subunits that possess cys-knots with 8-amino-acyl (8aa) rings. In order to get better insight in the structural evolution of glycoprotein hormones, we examined the number and organization of SS bridges in the sequences of human 8-aa-ring cys-knot proteins having 7 (gremlins), 9 (cerberus, DAN), 10 (GPA2, GPB5, GPHalpha) and 12 (GPHbeta) cysteine residues in their sequence.

DISCUSSION

The comparison indicated that the common GPH-alpha subunit exhibits a SS bridge organization resembling that of DAN and GPA2 but possesses a unique bridge linking an additional cysteine inside the ring to the most N-terminal cysteine residue. The specific GPHbeta subunits also exhibit a SS bridge organization close to that of DAN but it has two additional C-terminal cysteine residues which are involved in the formation of the "seat belt" fastened by a SS "buckle" that ensures the stability of the heterodimeric structure of GPHs. GPA2 and GPB5 exhibit no cys residue potentially involved in interchain SS bridge and GPB5 does not possess a sequence homologous to that of the seatbelt in GPH beta-subunits. GPA2 and GPB5 are thus not expected to form a stable heterodimer at low concentration in circulation.

SUMMARY

The 8-aa cys-knot proteins GPA2 and GPB5 are expected to form a heterodimer only at concentrations above 0.1 microM: this would be consistent with a short-term paracrine role but not with an endocrine role after dilution in circulation. Consequently, GPA2 and GPB5 could exert separate endocrine roles either during development and/or during adult life of both vertebrates and invertebrates.

Nonassembled human chorionic gonadotropin subunits and alphaalpha-homodimers use fast-track processing in the secretory pathway in contrast to alphabeta-heterodimers

In multimeric glycoproteins, like glycoprotein hormones, mutual subunit interactions are required for correct folding, assembly, and transport in the secretory pathway. However, character and time course of these interactions need further elucidation. The influence of the glycoprotein hormone alpha-subunit (GPHalpha) on the folding of the human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) beta-subunit (hCGbeta) in hCG alphabeta-heterodimers was investigated in [(35)S]Met/Cys-labeled JEG-3 cells. Completeness of disulfide bridge formation during the time course of folding was estimated by labeling with [(3)H]N-ethylmaleinimide of free thiol groups not yet consumed. Subunit association took place between immature hCGbeta (high (3)H/(35)S ratio) and almost completely folded GPHalpha. Analysis revealed a highly dynamic maturation process comprising of at least eight main hCGbeta folding intermediates (molecular masses from 107 to 28 kDa) that could be micro-preparatively isolated and characterized. These hCGbeta variants developed while being associated with GPHalpha. The 107-kDa variant was identified as a complex with calnexin. In contrast to hCG alphabeta-heterodimers, free nonassociated hCGbeta, free large GPHalpha, and GPHalphaalpha homodimers showed a fast-track-like processing in the secretory pathway. At 10 min before hCG secretion, sialylation of these variants had already been completed in the late Golgi, whereas hCG alphabeta-heterodimers had still not arrived medial Golgi. This shows that the GPHalpha in the hCG alphabeta-heterodimers decelerates the maturation of the hCGbeta portion in the heterodimer complex. This results in a postponed approval of hCG alphabeta-heterodimers by the endoplasmic reticulum quality control unlike GPHalphaalpha homodimers, free hCGbeta, and GPHalpha subunits.

Time-dependent folding of immunological epitopes of the human chorionic gonadotropin beta-subunit

We have explored the possibility to use 14 different monoclonal antibodies in order to follow the formation of the respective epitopes during the biosynthesis of hCG subunits and their association in JEG-3 choriocarcinoma cells using pulse (30s to 5 min)-chase (0-180 min) experiments. We found central cystine knot epitope structures (epitope beta1) to be formed immediately and simultaneously with epitopes on the protruding hCG-beta loops 1 and 3. We found also differences in the time-dependent folding of beta2 and beta4 epitopes, which are highly overlapping structures on the loops 1+3. These differences were reinforced by decreasing the temperature during the pulse-chase experiments to 25 degrees C. Moreover, we describe for the first time an intracellular intact hCG beta-subunit form that showed the transient expression of the hCG-beta-core fragment epitope beta11 in the course of the maturation of this subunit which casts new light on the presence of hCG-beta-core fragment in Down's syndrome, tumors and pregnancy.

Nitro-thiocyanobenzoic acid (NTCB) reactivity of cysteines beta100 and beta110 in porcine luteinizing hormone: metastability and hypothetical isomerization of the two disulfide bridges of its beta-subunit seatbelt

Luteinizing hormone (LH) like all other glycoprotein hormones is composed of two dissimilar subunits, alpha and beta, that are non-covalently associated. The heterodimer is stabilized by a region of the beta-subunit called the "seatbelt" because it wraps around the alpha-subunit and it is fastened by a disulfide bridge between cysteines beta26 and beta110. Although all 22 cysteines of porcine LH (pLH) are engaged in disulfide bridges, we previously showed that the free cysteine-specific reagent NTCB could react with pLH: it slowly cyanylated two cysteines in pLH and there was a close relationship between NTCB reaction with pLH and association/dissociation kinetics of its subunits. Therefore, cysteines beta26 and beta110 were considered as the best candidates for NTCB reaction. In order to identify the NTCB-reactive cysteines in pLH we have performed a mass spectroscopic analysis of the peptides released after mild basic hydrolysis of S-cyanylated pLH and its subunits. Only cysteines beta100 and beta110 were found to react with NTCB. Since these residues are not linked by a disulfide bridge in the crystallographic 3D structure of gonadotropins, it is proposed that their respective counterparts (Cysbeta93 and beta26) do not react with NTCB either because they are shielded from solvent or because they form a transient bridge. In the first hypothesis, both seatbelt bridges would be independently metastable; in the second one, a fast reversible isomerization between bridges beta26-beta110 and beta93-beta100 would occur. Such a reaction could be catalyzed by the previously recognized intrinsic protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) activity of gonadotropins.

Association/dissociation of gonadotropin subunits involves disulfide bridge disruption which is influenced by carbohydrate moiety

The association and dissociation rates of pituitary porcine luteinizing hormone (pLH) and equine LH (eLH) at oxidizing potential were slow and those of equine choriogonadotropin (eCG) were even much slower. At reducing potential mimicking endoplasmic reticulum condition, association of pLH subunits was observed in less than 5 min instead of 24 h at oxidizing potential. At neutral pH and 37 degrees C, DTNB and 2-nitro-5-thiocyanobenzoic acid (NTCB) were found to react with two cysteine residues (i.e., one S-S bridge) in pLH. The temperature dependence of the NTCB reaction on pLH was found to be similar to that of the dissociation of the hormone (Tm approximately 75 degrees C). The tight correlation between the reaction of two cysteines and dissociation of the subunits of pLH and eLH strongly suggests that transient opening of one fragile disulfide bridge is required for heterodimer assembly. Moreover, the absence of cysteine reaction with eCG indicates that its bulky carbohydrate chains exert a negative influence on the opening of this bridge leading to considerably diminished association-dissociation rates of its subunits.

Only a Portion of the Small Seatbelt Loop in Human Choriogonadotropin Appears Capable of Contacting the Lutropin Receptor

Twenty residues of the human choriogonadotropin (hCG) beta-subunit that are wrapped around alpha-subunit loop 2 like a "seatbelt" stabilize the heterodimer and enable the hormone to distinguish lutropin (LHR), follitropin, and thyrotropin receptors. The N-terminal portion of the seatbelt contains a small disulfide-stabilized loop needed for heterodimer assembly and is thought to mediate hCG-LHR interactions. To test the latter notion, we compared the LHR binding and signal transduction activities of hCG analogs in which the alpha-subunit C terminus (alphaCT) was cross-linked to residues in the small seatbelt loop. Analogs having an intersubunit disulfide between a cysteine in place of alphaCT residue alphaSer-92 and cysteines substituted for loop residues betaArg-94, betaArg-95, or betaSer-96 had high activities in LHR binding and signaling assays despite the fact that both portions of the hormone are thought to be essential for hCG activity. Use of a larger probe blocked hormone activity when the alphaCT was cross-linked to cysteines in place of residues betaArg-95 and betaAsp-99, but not to cysteines in place of residues betaArg-94, betaSer-96, or betaThr-97. This suggested that the side chains of residues betaArg-95 and betaAsp-99, which face in the same outward direction from the heterodimer, are nearer than the others to the LHR interface. The finding that residue 95 can be cross-linked to small alphaCT probes without eliminating hormone activity indicates its side chain does not participate in essential LHR contacts. We suggest that contacts between the small seatbelt loop and the LHR, if any, involve its backbone atoms and possibly the side chain of residue betaAsp-99.

Use of protein knobs to characterize the position of conserved alpha-subunit regions in lutropin receptor complexes

Efforts to identify the manner in which human choriogonadotropin (hCG) contacts lutropin receptors (LHR) have been stymied by the complex structure of the hormone and the likelihood that it contacts the receptor at multiple sites. During studies of hCG assembly in mammalian cells, we found that addition of a cysteine to the long disordered beta-subunit COOH terminus (betaCT) enabled it to become cross-linked by a disulfide to cysteines that are substituted for residues in loop alpha2 or in the alpha-subunit COOH terminus (alphaCT). This created a "knob" on the alpha-subunit at the location of the cysteine. Knobs of various sizes and charges were useful for probing surfaces of the alpha-subunit thought previously to contact the LHR. Attachment of the betaCT to residues in loop alpha2 facing loops beta1 and beta3 reduced hormone activity only a few fold revealing that this surface does not participate in essential high affinity receptor contacts, a finding inconsistent with our earlier view of the hCG-LHR complex. In contrast, this approach showed that the opposite surface of loop alpha2 appeared to be nearer the receptor interface. Although attachment of knobs to portions of the alphaCT reduced hormone activity substantially, this finding was difficult to interpret. As discussed, this procedure should be adapted readily to other proteins and may facilitate the introduction of fluorophores, enzymes, or other reagents at specific sites on protein surfaces. It may also permit one to cross-link proteins or to obscure specific protein surfaces during the development of "Trojan Horse" therapeutics.

Glycoprotein Hormone Assembly in the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Vertebrate glycoprotein hormone heterodimers are stabilized by a strand of their beta-subunits known as the "seatbelt" that is wrapped around loop 2 of their alpha-subunits (alpha2). The cysteine that terminates the seatbelt is "latched" by a disulfide to a cysteine in beta-subunit loop 1 (beta1) of all vertebrate hormones except some teleost follitropins (teFSH), wherein it is latched to a cysteine in the beta-subunit NH(2) terminus. As reported here, teFSH analogs of human choriogonadotropin (hCG) are assembled by a pathway in which the subunits dock before the seatbelt is latched; assembly is completed by wrapping the seatbelt around loop alpha2 and latching it to the NH(2) terminus. This differs from hCG assembly, which occurs by threading the glycosylated end of loop alpha2 beneath the latched seatbelt through a hole in the beta-subunit. The seatbelt is the part of the beta-subunit that has the greatest influence on biological function. Changes in its sequence during the divergence of lutropins, follitropins, and thyrotropins and the speciation of teleost fish may have impeded heterodimer assembly by a threading mechanism, as observed when the hCG seatbelt was replaced with its salmon FSH counterpart. Whereas wrapping is less efficient than threading, it may have facilitated natural experimentation with the composition of the seatbelt during the co-evolution of glycoprotein hormones and their receptors. Migration of the seatbelt latch site to the NH(2)-terminal end of the beta-subunit would have facilitated teFSH assembly by a wraparound mechanism and may have contributed also to its ability to distinguish lutropin and follitropin receptors.

Glycoprotein Hormone Assembly in the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Glycoprotein hormone heterodimers are stabilized by their unusual structures in which a glycosylated loop of the alpha-subunit straddles a hole in the beta-subunit. This hole is formed when a cysteine at the end of a beta-subunit strand known as the "seatbelt" becomes "latched" by a disulfide to a cysteine in the beta-subunit core. The heterodimer is stabilized in part by the difficulty of threading the glycosylated end of the alpha-subunit loop 2 through this hole, a phenomenon required for subunit dissociation. Subunit combination in vitro, which occurs by the reverse process, can be accelerated by removing the alpha-subunit oligosaccharide. In cells, heterodimer assembly was thought to occur primarily by a mechanism in which the seatbelt is wrapped around the alpha-subunit after the subunits dock. Here we show that this "wraparound" process can be used to assemble disulfide cross-linked human choriogonadotropin analogs that contain an additional alpha-subunit cysteine, but only if the normal beta-subunit latch site has been removed. Normally, the seatbelt is latched before the subunits dock and assembly is completed when the glycosylated end of alpha-subunit loop 2 is threaded beneath the seatbelt. The unexpected finding that most assembly of human choriogonadotropin, human follitropin, and human thyrotropin heterodimers occurs in this fashion, indicates that threading may be an important phenomenon during protein folding and macromolecule assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum. We suggest that the unusual structures of the glycoprotein hormones makes them useful for identifying factors that influence this process in living cells.

Glycoprotein hormone assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum: IV. Probable mechanism of subunit docking and completion of assembly

The unique structures of human choriogonadotropin (hCG) and related glycoprotein hormones make them well suited for studies of protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. hCG is stabilized by a strand of its beta-subunit that has been likened to a "seatbelt" because it surrounds alpha-subunit loop 2 and its end is "latched" by an intrasubunit disulfide bond to the beta-subunit core. As shown here, assembly begins when parts of the NH(2) terminus, cysteine knot, and loops 1 and 3 of the alpha-subunit dock reversibly with parts of the NH(2) terminus, cystine knot, and loop 2 of the hCG beta-subunit. Whereas the seatbelt can contribute to the stability of the docked subunit complex, it interferes with docking and/or destabilizes the docked complex when it is unlatched. This explains why most hCG is assembled by threading the glycosylated end of alpha-subunit loop 2 beneath the latched seatbelt rather than by wrapping the unlatched seatbelt around this loop. hCG assembly appears to be limited by the need to disrupt the disulfide that stabilizes the small seatbelt loop prior to threading. We postulate that assembly depends on a "zipper-like" sequential formation of intersubunit and intrasubunit hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms of several residues in the beta-subunit cystine knot, alpha-subunit loop 2, and the small seatbelt loop. The resulting intersubunit beta-sheet enhances the stability of the seatbelt loop disulfide, which shortens the seatbelt and secures the heterodimer. Formation of this disulfide also explains the ability of the seatbelt loop to facilitate latching during assembly by the wraparound pathway.