A novel monothiol glutaredoxin (Grx4) from Escherichia coli can serve as a substrate for thioredoxin reductase

Identification and characterization of multidomain monothiol glutaredoxin 3 from diploblastic Hydra

Intracellular antioxidant glutaredoxin controls cell proliferation and survival. Based on the active site, structure, and conserved domain motifs, it is classified into two classes. Class I contains dithiol Grxs with two cysteines in the consensus active site sequence CXXC, while class II has monothiol Grxs with one cysteine residue in the active site. Monothiol Grxs can also have an additional N-terminal thioredoxin (Trx)-like domain. Previously, we reported the characterization of Grx1 from Hydra vulgaris (HvGrx1), which is a dithiol isoform. Here, we report the molecular cloning, expression, analysis, and characterization of another isoform of Grx, which is the multidomain monothiol glutaredoxin-3 from Hydra vulgaris (HvGrx3). It encodes a protein with 303 amino acids and is significantly larger and more divergent than HvGrx1. In-silico analysis revealed that Grx1 and Grx3 have 22.5% and 9.9% identical nucleotide and amino acid sequences, respectively. HvGrx3 has two glutaredoxin domains and a thioredoxin-like domain at its amino terminus, unlike HvGrx1, which has a single glutaredoxin domain. Like other monothiol glutaredoxins, HvGrx3 failed to reduce glutathione-hydroxyethyl disulfide. In the whole Hydra, HvGrx3 was found to be expressed all over the body column, and treatment with H2O2 led to a significant upregulation of HvGrx3. When transfected in HCT116 (human colon cancer cells) cells, HvGrx3 enhanced cell proliferation and migration, indicating that this isoform could be involved in these cellular functions. These transfected cells also tolerate oxidative stress better.

Tyr76 is essential for the cold adaptation of a class II glutaredoxin 4 with a heat-labile structure from the Arctic bacterium Sphingomonas sp

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are small proteins that share a well-conserved thioredoxin (Trx)-fold and participate in many biological processes. This study examined the cold adaptation mechanism of a Fe-S cluster binding class II Grx4 (SpGrx4) from the psychrophilic Arctic bacterium Sphingomonas sp. PAMC 26621. Three polar residues close to the cis-proline residue (P73) of SpGrx4 form a hydrogen bond network (Q74-S67-Y76) with the cis-proline loop main chain. The hydroxyl group of S67 or Y76 or both is replaced in similar Grxs depending on the temperature of the habitat. Mutants with reduced hydrogen bonds (S67A, Q74A, Y76F, and S67A/Y76W) were more susceptible to urea-induced unfolding and more flexible than the wild-type (WT). By contrast, Y76W, with a bulky indole group, was the most stable. These mutants showed higher melting temperatures than WT as a consequence of increased hydrophobic interactions. These results suggest that the tyrosine residue, Y76, is preferred for the cold adaptation of SpGrx4 with a heat-labile structure despite the rigid cis-proline loop, due to hydrogen bond formation. An aromatic residue on β3 (cis-proline plus3) modulates the stability-flexibility of the cis-proline loop for temperature adaptation of prokaryotic class II Grx4 members via hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions.

New Perspectives on BolA: A Still Mysterious Protein Connecting Morphogenesis, Biofilm Production, Virulence, Iron Metabolism, and Stress Survival

The BolA-like protein family is widespread among prokaryotes and eukaryotes. BolA was originally described in E. coli as a gene induced in the stationary phase and in stress conditions. The BolA overexpression makes cells spherical. It was characterized as a transcription factor modulating cellular processes such as cell permeability, biofilm production, motility, and flagella assembly. BolA is important in the switch between motile and sedentary lifestyles having connections with the signaling molecule c-di-GMP. BolA was considered a virulence factor in pathogens such as Salmonella Typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae and it promotes bacterial survival when facing stresses due to host defenses. In E. coli, the BolA homologue IbaG is associated with resistance to acidic stress, and in Vibrio cholerae, IbaG is important for animal cell colonization. Recently, it was demonstrated that BolA is phosphorylated and this modification is important for the stability/turnover of BolA and its activity as a transcription factor. The results indicate that there is a physical interaction between BolA-like proteins and the CGFS-type Grx proteins during the biogenesis of Fe-S clusters, iron trafficking and storage. We also review recent progress regarding the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which BolA/Grx protein complexes are involved in the regulation of iron homeostasis in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Monothiol Glutaredoxin Is Essential for Oxidative Stress Protection and Virulence in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Glutaredoxins (Grxs), ubiquitous redox enzymes belonging to the thioredoxin family, catalyze the reduction of thiol-disulfide exchange reactions in a glutathione-dependent manner. A Pseudomonas aeruginosa ΔgrxD mutant exhibited hypersensitivity to oxidative stress-generating agents, such as paraquat (PQ) and cumene hydroperoxide (CHP). In vitro studies showed that P. aeruginosa GrxD acts as an electron donor for organic hydroperoxide resistance enzyme (Ohr) during CHP degradation. The ectopic expression of iron-sulfur cluster ([Fe-S]) carrier proteins, including ErpA, IscA, and NfuA, complements the function of GrxD in the ΔgrxD mutant under PQ toxicity. Constitutively high expression of iscR, nfuA, tpx, and fprB was observed in the ΔgrxD mutant. These results suggest that GrxD functions as a [Fe-S] cluster carrier protein involved in [Fe-S] cluster maturation. Moreover, the ΔgrxD mutant demonstrates attenuated virulence in a Drosophila melanogaster host model. Altogether, the data shed light on the physiological role of GrxD in oxidative stress protection and virulence of the human pathogen, P. aeruginosa. IMPORTANCE Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are ubiquitous disulfide reductase enzymes. Monothiol Grxs, containing a CXXS motif, play an essential role in iron homeostasis and maturation of [Fe-S] cluster proteins in various organisms. We now establish that the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa GrxD is crucial for bacterial virulence, maturation of [Fe-S] clusters and facilitation of Ohr enzyme activity. GrxD contains a conserved signature monothiol motif (C₂₉GFS), in which C29 is essential for its function in an oxidative stress protection. Our findings reveal the physiological roles of GrxD in oxidative stress protection and virulence of P. aeruginosa.

Relationships between the Reversible Oxidation of the Single Cysteine Residue and the Physiological Function of the Mitochondrial Glutaredoxin S15 from Arabidopsis thaliana

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are widespread proteins catalyzing deglutathionylation or glutathionylation reactions or serving for iron-sulfur (Fe-S) protein maturation. Previous studies highlighted a role of the Arabidopsis thaliana mitochondrial class II GRXS15 in Fe-S cluster assembly, whereas only a weak glutathione-dependent oxidation activity was detected with the non-physiological roGFP2 substrate in vitro. Still, the protein must exist in a reduced form for both redox and Fe-S cluster binding functions. Therefore, this study aimed at examining the redox properties of AtGRXS15. The acidic pKa of the sole cysteine present in AtGRXS15 indicates that it should be almost totally under a thiolate form at mitochondrial pH and thus possibly subject to oxidation. Oxidizing treatments revealed that this cysteine reacts with H₂O₂ or with oxidized glutathione forms. This leads to the formation of disulfide-bridge dimers and glutathionylated monomers which have redox midpoint potentials of -304 mV and -280 mV, respectively. Both oxidized forms are reduced by glutathione and mitochondrial thioredoxins. In conclusion, it appears that AtGRXS15 is prone to oxidation, forming reversible oxidation forms that may be seen either as a catalytic intermediate of the oxidoreductase activity and/or as a protective mechanism preventing irreversible oxidation and allowing Fe-S cluster binding upon reduction.

Hypoxia Affects the Antioxidant Activity of Glutaredoxin 3 in Scylla paramamosain through Hypoxia Response Elements

Hypoxia is a major environmental stressor that can damage the oxidation metabolism of crustaceans. Glutaredoxin (Grx) is a key member of the thioredoxin superfamily and plays an important role in the host's defense against oxidative stress. At present, the role of Grx in response to hypoxia in crustaceans remains unclear. In this study, the full-length cDNA of Grx3 (SpGrx3) was obtained from the mud crab Scylla paramamosain, which contains a 129-bp 5' untranslated region, a 981-bp open reading frame, and a 1,183-bp 3' untranslated region. The putative SpGrx3 protein contains an N-terminal thioredoxin domain and two C-terminal Grx domains. SpGrx3 was expressed in all tissues examined, with the highest expression in the anterior gills. After hypoxia, SpGrx3 expression was significantly up-regulated in the anterior gills of mud crabs. The expression of Grx2 and glutathione S-transferases was decreased, while the expression of glutathione peroxidases was increased following hypoxia when SpGrx3 was silenced in vivo. In addition, the total antioxidant capacity of SpGrx3-interfered mud crabs was significantly decreased, and the malondialdehyde content was significantly increased during hypoxia. The subcellular localization data indicated that SpGrx3 was predominantly localized in the nucleus when expressed in Drosophila Schneider 2 (S2) cells. Moreover, overexpression of SpGrx3 reduced the content of reactive oxygen species in S2 cells during hypoxia. To further investigate the transactivation mechanism of SpGrx3 during hypoxia, the promoter region of the SpGrx3 was obtained by Genome Walking and three hypoxia response elements (HREs) were predicted. Dual-luciferase reporter assay results demonstrated that SpGrx3 was likely involved in the hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) pathway during hypoxia, which could be mediated through HREs. The results indicated that SpGrx3 is involved in regulating the antioxidant system of mud crabs and plays a critical role in the response to hypoxia.

Biochemical and structural characterizations of thioredoxin reductase selenoproteins of the parasitic filarial nematodes Brugia malayi and Onchocerca volvulus

Enzymes in the thiol redox systems of microbial pathogens are promising targets for drug development. In this study we characterized the thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) selenoproteins from Brugia malayi and Onchocerca volvulus, filarial nematode parasites and causative agents of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis, respectively. The two filarial enzymes showed similar turnover numbers and affinities for different thioredoxin (Trx) proteins, but with a clear preference for the autologous Trx. Human TrxR1 (hTrxR1) had a high and similar specific activity versus the human and filarial Trxs, suggesting that, in vivo, hTrxR1 could possibly be the reducing agent of parasite Trxs once they are released into the host. Both filarial TrxRs were efficiently inhibited by auranofin and by a recently described inhibitor of human TrxR1 (TRi-1), but not as efficiently by the alternative compound TRi-2. The enzyme from B. malayi was structurally characterized also in complex with NADPH and auranofin, producing the first crystallographic structure of a nematode TrxR. The protein represents an unusual fusion of a mammalian-type TrxR protein architecture with an N-terminal glutaredoxin-like (Grx) domain lacking typical Grx motifs. Unlike thioredoxin glutathione reductases (TGRs) found in platyhelminths and mammals, which are also Grx–TrxR domain fusion proteins, the TrxRs from the filarial nematodes lacked glutathione disulfide reductase and Grx activities. The structural determinations revealed that the Grx domain of TrxR from B. malayi contains a cysteine (C22), conserved in TrxRs from clade IIIc nematodes, that directly interacts with the C-terminal cysteine-selenocysteine motif of the homo-dimeric subunit. Interestingly, despite this finding we found that altering C22 by mutation to serine did not affect enzyme catalysis. Thus, although the function of the Grx domain in these filarial TrxRs remains to be determined, the results obtained provide insights on key properties of this important family of selenoprotein flavoenzymes that are potential drug targets for treatment of filariasis.

Polymorphisms of genes related to phase II metabolism and resistance to clopidogrel

Clopidogrel is an antiplatelet drug commonly used to prevent coagulation. This review aimed to investigate the effect of polymorphisms of G6PD, GCLC, GCLM, GSS, GST, GSR, HK and GLRX genes on clopidogrel during phase II metabolism through exploring previous studies. The results revealed that low glutathione plasma levels caused by several alleles related to these genes could affect the bioactivation process of the clopidogrel prodrug, making it unable to inhibit platelet aggregation perfectly and thus leading to severe consequences in patients with a high risk of blood coagulation. However, the study recommends platelet reactivity tests to predict clopidogrel efficacy rather than studying gene mutations, as most of these mutations are rare and other nongenetic factors could affect the drug's efficacy.

Glutaredoxins Play an Important Role in the Redox Homeostasis and Symbiotic Capacity of Azorhizobium caulinodans ORS571

Glutaredoxin (GRX) plays an essential role in the control of the cellular redox state and related pathways in many organisms. There is limited information on GRXs from the model nitrogen (N₂)-fixing bacterium Azorhizobium caulinodans. In the present work, we identified and performed functional analyses of monothiol and dithiol GRXs in A. caulinodans in the free-living state and during symbiosis with Sesbania rostrata. Our data show that monothiol GRXs may be very important for bacterial growth under normal conditions and in response to oxidative stress due to imbalance of the redox state in grx mutants of A. caulinodans. Functional redundancies were also observed within monothiol and dithiol GRXs in terms of different physiological functions. The changes in catalase activity and iron content in grx mutants were assumed to favor the maintenance of bacterial resistance against oxidants, nodulation, and N₂ fixation efficiency in this bacterium. Furthermore, the monothiol GRX12 and dithiol GRX34 play a collective role in symbiotic associations between A. caulinodans and Sesbania rostrata. Our study provided systematic evidence that further investigations are required to understand the importance of glutaredoxins in A. caulinodans and other rhizobia.

Molecular mechanisms of Mycoredoxin-1 in resistance to oxidative stress in Corynebacterium glutamicum

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) with Cys-Pro-Phe (Tyr)-Cys motif and a thioredoxin fold structure play an important role in the anti-oxidant system of bacteria by catalyzing a variety of thiol-disulfide exchange reactions with a 2-Cys mechanism or a 1-Cys mechanism. However, the catalytic and physiological mechanism of Corynebacterium glutamicum Mycoredoxin 1 (Mrx1) that shares a high amino acid sequence similarity to Grxs has not been fully elucidated. Here, we report that Mrx1 has a protective function against various adverse conditions, and the decrease of cell viability to various stress conditions by deletion of the Mrx1 in C. glutamicum was confirmed in the mrx1 mutant. The physiological roles of Mrx1 in defence to oxidative stress were corroborated by its induced expression under various stresses, regulated directly by the stress-responsive extracytoplasmic function-sigma (ECF-σ) factor SigH. As well as reducing mycothiol (MSH) mixed disulfide bonds via a 1-Cys mechanism, C. glutamicum Mrx1 catalytically reduced the disulfides in the Ib RNR, insulin and 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) by exclusively linking the MSH/Mtr (mycothiol disulfide reductase)/NADPH electron pathway via a 2-Cys mechanism. Thus, we present the first evidence that the Mrx1 is able to protect against the damaging effects of various exogenous stresses by acting as a disulfide oxidoreductase, thereby giving a new insight in how C. glutamicum survives oxidative stressful conditions.

Targeting Bacterial Antioxidant Systems for Antibiotics Development

The emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria has become an urgent issue in modern medicine which requires novel strategies to develop antibiotics. Recent studies have supported the hypothesis that antibiotic-induced bacterial cell death is mediated by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The hypothesis also highlighted the importance of antioxidant systems, the defense mechanism which contributes to antibiotic resistance. Thioredoxin and glutathione systems are the two major thiol-dependent systems which not only provide antioxidant capacity but also participate in various biological events in bacteria, such as DNA synthesis and protein folding. The biological importance makes them promising targets for novel antibiotics development. Based on the idea, ebselen and auranofin, two bacterial thioredoxin reductase inhibitors, have been found to inhibit the growth of bacteria lacking the GSH efficiently. A recent study combining ebselen and silver exhibited a strong synergistic effect against Multidrug-Resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria which possess both thioredoxin and glutathione systems. These drug-repurposing studies are promising for quick clinical usage due to their well-known profile.

Making iron-sulfur cluster: structure, regulation and evolution of the bacterial ISC system

Iron sulfur (Fe-S) clusters rank among the most ancient and conserved prosthetic groups. Fe-S clusters containing proteins are present in most, if not all, organisms. Fe-S clusters containing proteins are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, from gene regulation to central metabolism, via gene expression, RNA modification or bioenergetics. Fe-S clusters are built by biogenesis machineries conserved throughout both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. We focus mostly on bacterial ISC machinery, but not exclusively, as we refer to eukaryotic ISC system when it brings significant complementary information. Besides covering the structural and regulatory aspects of Fe-S biogenesis, this review aims to highlight Fe-S biogenesis facets remaining matters of discussion, such as the role of frataxin, or the link between fatty acid metabolism and Fe-S homeostasis. Last, we discuss recent advances on strategies used by different species to make and use Fe-S clusters in changing redox environmental conditions.

Quantitative assessment of the determinant structural differences between redox-active and inactive glutaredoxins

Class I glutaredoxins are enzymatically active, glutathione-dependent oxidoreductases, whilst class II glutaredoxins are typically enzymatically inactive, Fe-S cluster-binding proteins. Enzymatically active glutaredoxins harbor both a glutathione-scaffold site for reacting with glutathionylated disulfide substrates and a glutathione-activator site for reacting with reduced glutathione. Here, using yeast ScGrx7 as a model protein, we comprehensively identified and characterized key residues from four distinct protein regions, as well as the covalently bound glutathione moiety, and quantified their contribution to both interaction sites. Additionally, we developed a redox-sensitive GFP2-based assay, which allowed the real-time assessment of glutaredoxin structure-function relationships inside living cells. Finally, we employed this assay to rapidly screen multiple glutaredoxin mutants, ultimately enabling us to convert enzymatically active and inactive glutaredoxins into each other. In summary, we have gained a comprehensive understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of glutaredoxin catalysis and have elucidated the determinant structural differences between the two main classes of glutaredoxins.

Glutaredoxins play a central role in numerous biological processes including cellular redox homeostasis and Fe-S cluster biogenesis. Here the authors establish the molecular basis for glutaredoxin redox catalysis through comprehensive biochemical and structural analyses.

OxyR senses sulfane sulfur and activates the genes for its removal in Escherichia coli

Sulfane sulfur species including hydrogen polysulfide and organic persulfide are newly recognized normal cellular components, and they participate in signaling and protect cells from oxidative stress. Their production has been extensively studied, but their removal is less characterized. Herein, we showed that sulfane sulfur at high levels was toxic to Escherichia coli under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. OxyR, a well-known regulator against H₂O₂, also sensed sulfane sulfur, as revealed via mutational analysis, constructed gene circuits, and in vitro gene expression. Hydrogen polysulfide modified OxyR at Cys199 to form a persulfide OxyR C199-SSH, and the modified OxyR activated the expression of thioredoxin 2 and glutaredoxin 1. The two enzymes are known to reduce sulfane sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that OxyR homologs are widely present in bacteria, including obligate anaerobic bacteria. Thus, the OxyR sensing of sulfane sulfur may represent a preserved mechanism for bacteria to deal with sulfane sulfur stress.

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OxyR also senses sulfane sulfur stress and activates the genes for its removal.

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OxyR senses hydrogen polysulfide via persulfidation of OxyR at Cys¹⁹⁹.

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OxyR responds to sulfane sulfur stress under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

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OxyR is widely distributed in bacterial genomes, including anaerobic bacteria.

Redox Homeostasis in Photosynthetic Organisms: Novel and Established Thiol-Based Molecular Mechanisms

Significance: Redox homeostasis consists of an intricate network of reactions in which reactive molecular species, redox modifications, and redox proteins act in concert to allow both physiological responses and adaptation to stress conditions. Recent Advances: This review highlights established and novel thiol-based regulatory pathways underlying the functional facets and significance of redox biology in photosynthetic organisms. In the last decades, the field of redox regulation has largely expanded and this work is aimed at giving the right credit to the importance of thiol-based regulatory and signaling mechanisms in plants. Critical Issues: This cannot be all-encompassing, but is intended to provide a comprehensive overview on the structural/molecular mechanisms governing the most relevant thiol switching modifications with emphasis on the large genetic and functional diversity of redox controllers (i.e., redoxins). We also summarize the different proteomic-based approaches aimed at investigating the dynamics of redox modifications and the recent evidence that extends the possibility to monitor the cellular redox state in vivo. The physiological relevance of redox transitions is discussed based on reverse genetic studies confirming the importance of redox homeostasis in plant growth, development, and stress responses. Future Directions: In conclusion, we can firmly assume that redox biology has acquired an established significance that virtually infiltrates all aspects of plant physiology.

Novel interactions of Selenium Binding Protein family with the PICOT containing proteins AtGRXS14 and AtGRXS16 in Arabidopsis thaliana

During abiotic stress the primary symptom of phytotoxicity can be ROS production which is strictly regulated by ROS scavenging pathways involving enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Furthermore, ROS are well-described secondary messengers of cellular processes, while during the course of evolution, plants have accomplished high degree of control over ROS and used them as signalling molecules. Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are small and ubiquitous glutathione (GSH) -or thioredoxin reductase (TR)-dependent oxidoreductases belonging to the thioredoxin (TRX) superfamily which are conserved in most eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In Arabidopsis thaliana GRXs are subdivided into four classes playing a central role in oxidative stress responses and physiological functions. In this work, we describe a novel interaction of AtGRXS14 with the Selenium Binding Protein 1 (AtSBP1), a protein proposed to be integrated in a regulatory network that senses alterations in cellular redox state and acts towards its restoration. We further show that SBP protein family interacts with AtGRXS16 that also contains a PICOT domain, like AtGRXS14.

Understanding the Cross-Talk of Redox Metabolism and Fe-S Cluster Biogenesis in Leishmania Through Systems Biology Approach

Leishmania parasites possess an exceptional oxidant and chemical defense mechanism, involving a very unique small molecular weight thiol, trypanothione (T[SH]₂), that helps the parasite to manage its survival inside the host macrophage. The reduced state of T[SH]₂ is maintained by NADPH-dependent trypanothione reductase (TryR) by recycling trypanothione disulfide (TS₂). Along with its most important role as central reductant, T[SH]₂ have also been assumed to regulate the activation of iron-sulfur cluster proteins (Fe/S). Fe/S clusters are versatile cofactors of various proteins and execute a much broader range of essential biological processes viz., TCA cycle, redox homeostasis, etc. Although, several Fe/S cluster proteins and their roles have been identified in Leishmania, some of the components of how T[SH]₂ is involved in the regulation of Fe/S proteins remains to be explored. In pursuit of this aim, a systems biology approach was undertaken to get an insight into the overall picture to unravel how T[SH]₂ synthesis and reduction is linked with the regulation of Fe/S cluster proteins and controls the redox homeostasis at a larger scale. In the current study, we constructed an in silico kinetic model of T[SH]₂ metabolism. T[SH]₂ reduction reaction was introduced with a perturbation in the form of its inhibition to predict the overall behavior of the model. The main control of reaction fluxes were exerted by TryR reaction rate that affected almost all the important reactions in the model. It was observed that the model was more sensitive to the perturbation introduced in TryR reaction, 5 to 6-fold. Furthermore, due to inhibition, the T[SH]₂ synthesis rate was observed to be gradually decreased by 8 to 14-fold. This has also caused an elevated level of free radicals which apparently affected the activation of Fe/S cluster proteins. The present kinetic model has demonstrated the importance of T[SH]₂ in leishmanial cellular redox metabolism. Hence, we suggest that, by designing highly potent and specific inhibitors of TryR enzyme, inhibition of T[SH]₂ reduction and overall inhibition of most of the downstream pathways including Fe/S protein activation reactions, can be accomplished.

Using a Chemical Genetic Screen to Enhance Our Understanding of the Antimicrobial Properties of Gallium against Escherichia coli

The diagnostic and therapeutic agent gallium offers multiple clinical and commercial uses including the treatment of cancer and the localization of tumors, among others. Further, this metal has been proven to be an effective antimicrobial agent against a number of microbes. Despite the latter, the fundamental mechanisms of gallium action have yet to be fully identified and understood. To further the development of this antimicrobial, it is imperative that we understand the mechanisms by which gallium interacts with cells. As a result, we screened the Escherichia coli Keio mutant collection as a means of identifying the genes that are implicated in prolonged gallium toxicity or resistance and mapped their biological processes to their respective cellular system. We discovered that the deletion of genes functioning in response to oxidative stress, DNA or iron–sulfur cluster repair, and nucleotide biosynthesis were sensitive to gallium, while Ga resistance comprised of genes involved in iron/siderophore import, amino acid biosynthesis and cell envelope maintenance. Altogether, our explanations of these findings offer further insight into the mechanisms of gallium toxicity and resistance in E. coli.

The thioredoxin-mediated recycling of Arabidopsis thaliana GRXS16 relies on a conserved C-terminal cysteine

BACKGROUND

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are oxidoreductases involved in diverse cellular processes through their capacity to reduce glutathionylated proteins and/or to coordinate iron‑sulfur (Fe-S) clusters. Among class II GRXs, the plant-specific GRXS16 is a bimodular protein formed by an N-terminal endonuclease domain fused to a GRX domain containing a ¹⁵⁸CGFS signature.

METHODS

The biochemical properties (redox activity, sensitivity to oxidation, pK_a of cysteine residues, midpoint redox potential) of Arabidopsis thaliana GRXS16 were investigated by coupling oxidative treatments to alkylation shift assays, activity measurements and mass spectrometry analyses.

RESULTS

Activity measurements using redox-sensitive GFP2 (roGFP2) as target protein did not reveal any significant glutathione-dependent reductase activity of A. thaliana GRXS16 whereas it was able to catalyze the oxidation of roGFP2 in the presence of glutathione disulfide. Accordingly, Arabidopsis GRXS16 reacted efficiently with oxidized forms of glutathione, leading to the formation of an intramolecular disulfide between Cys¹⁵⁸ and the semi-conserved Cys²¹⁵, which has a midpoint redox potential of - 298 mV at pH 7.0 and is reduced by plastidial thioredoxins (TRXs) but not GSH. By promoting the formation of this disulfide, Cys²¹⁵ modulates GRXS16 oxidoreductase activity.

CONCLUSION

The reduction of AtGRXS16, which is mandatory for its oxidoreductase activity and the binding of Fe-S clusters, depends on light through the plastidial FTR/TRX system. Hence, disulfide formation may constitute a redox switch mechanism controlling GRXS16 function in response to day/night transition or oxidizing conditions.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

From the in vitro data obtained with roGFP2, one can postulate that GRXS16 would mediate protein glutathionylation/oxidation in plastids but not their deglutathionylation.

The Incomplete Glutathione Puzzle: Just Guessing at Numbers and Figures?

SIGNIFICANCE

Glutathione metabolism is comparable to a jigsaw puzzle with too many pieces. It is supposed to comprise (i) the reduction of disulfides, hydroperoxides, sulfenic acids, and nitrosothiols, (ii) the detoxification of aldehydes, xenobiotics, and heavy metals, and (iii) the synthesis of eicosanoids, steroids, and iron-sulfur clusters. In addition, glutathione affects oxidative protein folding and redox signaling. Here, I try to provide an overview on the relevance of glutathione-dependent pathways with an emphasis on quantitative data. Recent Advances: Intracellular redox measurements reveal that the cytosol, the nucleus, and mitochondria contain very little glutathione disulfide and that oxidative challenges are rapidly counterbalanced. Genetic approaches suggest that iron metabolism is the centerpiece of the glutathione puzzle in yeast. Furthermore, recent biochemical studies provide novel insights on glutathione transport processes and uncoupling mechanisms.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Which parts of the glutathione puzzle are most relevant? Does this explain the high intracellular concentrations of reduced glutathione? How can iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis, oxidative protein folding, or redox signaling occur at high glutathione concentrations? Answers to these questions not only seem to depend on the organism, cell type, and subcellular compartment but also on different ideologies among researchers.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

A rational approach to compare the relevance of glutathione-dependent pathways is to combine genetic and quantitative kinetic data. However, there are still many missing pieces and too little is known about the compartment-specific repertoire and concentration of numerous metabolites, substrates, enzymes, and transporters as well as rate constants and enzyme kinetic patterns. Gathering this information might require the development of novel tools but is crucial to address potential kinetic competitions and to decipher uncoupling mechanisms to solve the glutathione puzzle. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 27, 1130-1161.

Glutathione, Glutaredoxins, and Iron

SIGNIFICANCE

Glutathione (GSH) is the most abundant cellular low-molecular-weight thiol in the majority of organisms in all kingdoms of life. Therefore, functions of GSH and disturbed regulation of its concentration are associated with numerous physiological and pathological situations. Recent Advances: The function of GSH as redox buffer or antioxidant is increasingly being questioned. New functions, especially functions connected to the cellular iron homeostasis, were elucidated. Via the formation of iron complexes, GSH is an important player in all aspects of iron metabolism: sensing and regulation of iron levels, iron trafficking, and biosynthesis of iron cofactors. The variety of GSH coordinated iron complexes and their functions with a special focus on FeS-glutaredoxins are summarized in this review. Interestingly, GSH analogues that function as major low-molecular-weight thiols in organisms lacking GSH resemble the functions in iron homeostasis.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Since these iron-related functions are most likely also connected to thiol redox chemistry, it is difficult to distinguish between mechanisms related to either redox or iron metabolisms.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The ability of GSH to coordinate iron in different complexes with or without proteins needs further investigation. The discovery of new Fe-GSH complexes and their physiological functions will significantly advance our understanding of cellular iron homeostasis. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 27, 1235-1251.

Arabidopsis Glutaredoxin S17 Contributes to Vegetative Growth, Mineral Accumulation, and Redox Balance during Iron Deficiency

Iron (Fe) is an essential mineral nutrient and a metal cofactor required for many proteins and enzymes involved in the processes of DNA synthesis, respiration, and photosynthesis. Iron limitation can have detrimental effects on plant growth and development. Such effects are mediated, at least in part, through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, plants have evolved a complex regulatory network to respond to conditions of iron limitations. However, the mechanisms that couple iron deficiency and oxidative stress responses are not fully understood. Here, we report the discovery that an Arabidopsis thaliana monothiol glutaredoxin S17 (AtGRXS17) plays a critical role in the plants ability to respond to iron deficiency stress and maintain redox homeostasis. In a yeast expression assay, AtGRXS17 was able to suppress the iron accumulation in yeast ScGrx3/ScGrx4 mutant cells. Genetic analysis indicated that plants with reduced AtGRXS17 expression were hypersensitive to iron deficiency and showed increased iron concentrations in mature seeds. Disruption of AtGRXS17 caused plant sensitivity to exogenous oxidants and increased ROS production under iron deficiency. Addition of reduced glutathione rescued the growth and alleviates the sensitivity of atgrxs17 mutants to iron deficiency. These findings suggest AtGRXS17 helps integrate redox homeostasis and iron deficiency responses.

Glutaredoxin catalysis requires two distinct glutathione interaction sites

Glutaredoxins are key players in cellular redox homoeostasis and exert a variety of essential functions ranging from glutathione-dependent catalysis to iron metabolism. The exact structure–function relationships and mechanistic differences among glutaredoxins that are active or inactive in standard enzyme assays have so far remained elusive despite numerous kinetic and structural studies. Here, we elucidate the enzymatic mechanism showing that glutaredoxins require two distinct glutathione interaction sites for efficient redox catalysis. The first site interacts with the glutathione moiety of glutathionylated disulfide substrates. The second site activates glutathione as the reducing agent. We propose that the requirement of two distinct glutathione interaction sites for the efficient reduction of glutathionylated disulfide substrates explains the deviating structure–function relationships, activities and substrate preferences of different glutaredoxin subfamilies as well as thioredoxins. Our model also provides crucial insights for the design or optimization of artificial glutaredoxins, transition-state inhibitors and glutaredoxin-coupled redox sensors.

Glutaredoxins have important roles in redox processes. Here the authors show that the enzymatic activity of glutaredoxins requires two distinct glutathione interactions sites, one recognizing the glutathione disulfide substrate and one activating glutathione as a reducing agent.

Proteomic Characterization of Reversible Thiol Oxidations in Proteomes and Proteins

SIGNIFICANCE

Reactive oxygen species are produced during normal metabolism in cells, and their excesses have been implicated in protein damage and toxicity, as well as in the activation of signaling events. In particular, hydrogen peroxide participates in the regulation of different physiological processes as well as in the induction of antioxidant cascades, and often the redox molecular events triggering these pathways are based on reversible cysteine (Cys) oxidation. Recent Advances: Increases in peroxides can cause the accumulation of reversible Cys oxidations in proteomes, which may be either protecting thiols from irreversible oxidations or may just be reporters of future toxicity. It is also becoming clear, however, that only a few proteins, such as the bacterial OxyR or peroxidases, can suffer direct oxidation of their Cys residues by hydrogen peroxide and, therefore, may be the only true sensors initiating signaling events.

CRITICAL ISSUES

We will in this study describe some of the methodologies used to characterize at the proteome level reversible thiol oxidations, specifically those combining gel-free approaches with mass spectrometry. In the second part of this review, we will summarize some of the electrophoretic and proteomic techniques used to monitor Cys oxidation at the protein level, needed to confirm that a protein contains redox Cys involved in signaling relays, using as examples some of the best characterized redox sensors such as bacterial OxyR or yeast Tpx1/Pap1.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

While Cys oxidations are often detected in proteomes and in specific proteins, major efforts have to be made to establish that they are physiologically relevant. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 329-344.

Arabidopsis Glutaredoxin S17 Contributes to Vegetative Growth, Mineral Accumulation, and Redox Balance during Iron Deficiency

Iron (Fe) is an essential mineral nutrient and a metal cofactor required for many proteins and enzymes involved in the processes of DNA synthesis, respiration, and photosynthesis. Iron limitation can have detrimental effects on plant growth and development. Such effects are mediated, at least in part, through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, plants have evolved a complex regulatory network to respond to conditions of iron limitations. However, the mechanisms that couple iron deficiency and oxidative stress responses are not fully understood. Here, we report the discovery that an Arabidopsis thaliana monothiol glutaredoxin S17 (AtGRXS17) plays a critical role in the plants ability to respond to iron deficiency stress and maintain redox homeostasis. In a yeast expression assay, AtGRXS17 was able to suppress the iron accumulation in yeast ScGrx3/ScGrx4 mutant cells. Genetic analysis indicated that plants with reduced AtGRXS17 expression were hypersensitive to iron deficiency and showed increased iron concentrations in mature seeds. Disruption of AtGRXS17 caused plant sensitivity to exogenous oxidants and increased ROS production under iron deficiency. Addition of reduced glutathione rescued the growth and alleviates the sensitivity of atgrxs17 mutants to iron deficiency. These findings suggest AtGRXS17 helps integrate redox homeostasis and iron deficiency responses.

The Escherichia coli BolA Protein IbaG Forms a Histidine-Ligated [2Fe-2S]-Bridged Complex with Grx4

Two ubiquitous protein families have emerged as key players in iron metabolism, the CGFS-type monothiol glutaredoxins (Grxs) and the BolA proteins. Monothiol Grxs and BolA proteins form heterocomplexes that have been implicated in Fe-S cluster assembly and trafficking. The Escherichia coli genome encodes members of both of these proteins families, namely, the monothiol glutaredoxin Grx4 and two BolA family proteins, BolA and IbaG. Previous work has demonstrated that E. coli Grx4 and BolA interact as both apo and [2Fe-2S]-bridged heterodimers that are spectroscopically distinct from [2Fe-2S]-bridged Grx4 homodimers. However, the physical and functional interactions between Grx4 and IbaG are uncharacterized. Here we show that co-expression of Grx4 with IbaG yields a [2Fe-2S]-bridged Grx4-IbaG heterodimer. In vitro interaction studies indicate that IbaG binds the [2Fe-2S] Grx4 homodimer to form apo Grx4-IbaG heterodimer as well as the [2Fe-2S] Grx4-IbaG heterodimer, altering the cluster stability and coordination environment. Additionally, spectroscopic and mutagenesis studies provide evidence that IbaG ligates the Fe-S cluster via the conserved histidine that is present in all BolA proteins and by a second conserved histidine that is present in the H/C loop of two of the four classes of BolA proteins. These results suggest that IbaG may function in Fe-S cluster assembly and trafficking in E. coli as demonstrated for other BolA homologues that interact with monothiol Grxs.

A New Class of Thioredoxin-Related Protein Able to Bind Iron-Sulfur Clusters

AIMS

Members of the thioredoxin (Trx) protein family participate mainly in redox pathways and have not been associated with Fe/S binding, in contrast to some closely related glutaredoxins (Grxs). Cestode parasites possess an unusual diversity of Trxs and Trx-related proteins with unexplored functions. In this study, we addressed the biochemical characterization of a new class of Trx-related protein (IsTRP) and a classical monothiol Grx (EgGrx5) from the human pathogen Echinococcus granulosus.

RESULTS

The dimeric form of IsTRP coordinates Fe₂S₂ in a glutathione-independent manner; instead, Fe/S binding relies on the CXXC motif conserved among Trxs. This novel binding mechanism allows holo-IsTRP to be highly resistant to oxidation. IsTRP lacks canonical reductase activities. Mitochondrially targeted IsTRP aids growth of a Grx5 null yeast strain. Similar complementation assays performed with EgGrx5 revealed functional conservation for class II Grxs, despite the presence of nonconserved structural elements. IsTRP is a cestode lineage-specific protein highly expressed in the gravid adult worm, which releases the infective stage critical for dissemination.

INNOVATION

IsTRP is the first member from the Trx family to be reported to bind Fe/S. We disclose a novel mechanism of Fe/S coordination within the Trx folding unit, which renders the cluster highly resistant to oxidation-mediated disassembly.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that IsTRP defines a new protein family within the Trx superfamily, confirm the conservation of function for class II Grx from nonphylogenetically related species, and highlight the versatility of the Trx folding unit to acquire Fe/S binding as a recurrent emergent function. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 00, 000-000.

The specificity of thioredoxins and glutaredoxins is determined by electrostatic and geometric complementarity

Thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases from the thioredoxin (Trx) family of proteins have a broad range of well documented functions and possess distinct substrate specificities. The mechanisms and characteristics that control these specificities are key to the understanding of both the reduction of catalytic disulfides as well as allosteric disulfides (thiol switches). Here, we have used the catalytic disulfide of E. coli 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) reductase (PR) that forms between the single active site thiols of two monomers during the reaction cycle as a model system to investigate the mechanisms of Trx and Grx protein specificity. Enzyme kinetics, ΔE'0 determination, and structural analysis of various Trx and Grx family members suggested that the redox potential does not determine specificity nor efficiency of the redoxins as reductant for PR. Instead, the efficiency of PR with various redoxins correlated strongly to the extent of a negative electric field of the redoxins reaching into the solvent outside the active site, and electrostatic and geometric complementary contact surfaces. These data suggest that, in contrast to common assumption, the composition of the active site motif is less important for substrate specificity than other amino acids in or even outside the immediate contact area.

The mitochondrial monothiol glutaredoxin S15 is essential for iron-sulfur protein maturation in Arabidopsis thaliana

The iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) is an ancient and essential cofactor of many proteins involved in electron transfer and metabolic reactions. In Arabidopsis, three pathways exist for the maturation of iron-sulfur proteins in the cytosol, plastids, and mitochondria. We functionally characterized the role of mitochondrial glutaredoxin S15 (GRXS15) in biogenesis of ISC containing aconitase through a combination of genetic, physiological, and biochemical approaches. Two Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion mutants were identified as null mutants with early embryonic lethal phenotypes that could be rescued by GRXS15. Furthermore, we showed that recombinant GRXS15 is able to coordinate and transfer an ISC and that this coordination depends on reduced glutathione (GSH). We found the Arabidopsis GRXS15 able to complement growth defects based on disturbed ISC protein assembly of a yeast Δgrx5 mutant. Modeling of GRXS15 onto the crystal structures of related nonplant proteins highlighted amino acid residues that after mutation diminished GSH and subsequently ISC coordination, as well as the ability to rescue the yeast mutant. When used for plant complementation, one of these mutant variants, GRXS15K83/A, led to severe developmental delay and a pronounced decrease in aconitase activity by approximately 65%. These results indicate that mitochondrial GRXS15 is an essential protein in Arabidopsis, required for full activity of iron-sulfur proteins.

Systematic re-evaluation of the bis(2-hydroxyethyl)disulfide (HEDS) assay reveals an alternative mechanism and activity of glutaredoxins

The sequential kinetic patterns of mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins in the HEDS assay reflect an alternative enzymatic mechanism for the glutathione-dependent reduction of disulfide substrates.

The reduction of bis(2-hydroxyethyl)disulfide (HEDS) by reduced glutathione (GSH) is the most commonly used assay to analyze the presence and properties of enzymatically active glutaredoxins (Grx), a family of central redox proteins in eukaryotes and glutathione-utilizing prokaryotes. Enzymatically active Grx usually prefer glutathionylated disulfide substrates. These are converted via a ping-pong mechanism. Sequential kinetic patterns for the HEDS assay have therefore been puzzling since 1991. Here we established a novel assay and used the model enzyme ScGrx7 from yeast and PfGrx from Plasmodium falciparum to test several possible causes for the sequential kinetics such as pre-enzymatic GSH depletion, simultaneous binding of a glutathionylated substrate and GSH, as well as substrate or product inhibition. Furthermore, we analyzed the non-enzymatic reaction between HEDS and GSH by HPLC and mass spectrometry suggesting that such a reaction is too slow to explain high Grx activities in the assay. The most plausible interpretation of our results is a direct Grx-catalyzed reduction of HEDS. Physiological implications of this alternative mechanism and of the Grx-catalyzed reduction of non-glutathione disulfide substrates are discussed.

Molecular investigation of the radiation resistance of edible cyanobacterium Arthrospira sp. PCC 8005

The aim of this work was to characterize in detail the response of Arthrospira to ionizing radiation, to better understand its radiation resistance capacity. Live cells of Arthrospira sp. PCC 8005 were irradiated with ⁶⁰Co gamma rays. This study is the first, showing that Arthrospira is highly tolerant to gamma rays, and can survive at least 6400 Gy (dose rate of 527 Gy h⁻¹), which identified Arthrospira sp. PCC 8005 as a radiation resistant bacterium. Biochemical, including proteomic and transcriptomic, analysis after irradiation with 3200 or 5000 Gy showed a decline in photosystem II quantum yield, reduced carbon fixation, and reduced pigment, lipid, and secondary metabolite synthesis. Transcription of photo-sensing and signaling pathways, and thiol-based antioxidant systems was induced. Transcriptomics did show significant activation of ssDNA repair systems and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) at the RNA level. Surprisingly, the cells did not induce the classical antioxidant or DNA repair systems, such superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme and the RecA protein. Arthrospira cells lack the catalase gene and the LexA repressor. Irradiated Arthrospira cells did induce strongly a group of conserved proteins, of which the function in radiation resistance remains to be elucidated, but which are a promising novel routes to be explored. This study revealed the radiation resistance of Arthrospira, and the molecular systems involved, paving the way for its further and better exploitation.

Evolutionary development of redox regulation in chloroplasts

SIGNIFICANCE

The post-translational modification of thiol groups stands out as a key strategy that cells employ for metabolic regulation and adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Nowhere is this more evident than in chloroplasts-the O2-evolving photosynthetic organelles of plant cells that are fitted with multiple redox systems, including the thioredoxin (Trx) family of oxidoreductases functional in the reversible modification of regulatory thiols of proteins in all types of cells. The best understood member of this family in chloroplasts is the ferredoxin-linked thioredoxin system (FTS) by which proteins are modified via light-dependent disulfide/dithiol (S-S/2SH) transitions.

RECENT ADVANCES

Discovered in the reductive activation of enzymes of the Calvin-Benson cycle in illuminated chloroplast preparations, recent studies have extended the role of the FTS far beyond its original boundaries to include a spectrum of cellular processes. Together with the NADP-linked thioredoxin reductase C-type (NTRC) and glutathione/glutaredoxin systems, the FTS also plays a central role in the response of chloroplasts to different types of stress.

CRITICAL ISSUES

The comparisons of redox regulatory networks functional in chloroplasts of land plants with those of cyanobacteria-prokaryotes considered to be the ancestors of chloroplasts-and different types of algae summarized in this review have provided new insight into the evolutionary development of redox regulation, starting with the simplest O2-evolving organisms.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The evolutionary appearance, mode of action, and specificity of the redox regulatory systems functional in chloroplasts, as well as the types of redox modification operating under diverse environmental conditions stand out as areas for future study.

The GSH- and GSSG-bound structures of glutaredoxin from Clostridium oremlandii

Glutaredoxin (Grx) is a major redox enzyme that reduces disulfide bonds using glutathione (GSH) as an electron donor. The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium oremlandii possesses a selenocysteine-containing Grx (cGrx1) and a cysteine-containing homolog (cGrx2). Here, the crystal structure of the GSSG-bound form of cGrx2 was determined for the first time at a resolution of 1.95Å. In addition, its monothiol variant cGrx2/C15S in complex with GSH was also determined at a resolution of 1.58Å. cGrx2 is a monomeric protein with an overall structure that consists of the typical thioredoxin fold composed of four α-helices and four β-strands. Two ligands, GSH and GSSG, share a conserved binding site consisting of CPYC, TVP, and CDD motifs. The cysteinyl and γ-glutamyl moieties show similar binding interactions in the two structures, whereas the glycine moiety shows different interactions. Interestingly, the structures revealed that only one GSH moiety of GSSG is sufficient for its binding to the protein. The GSSG-bound structure of cGrx2 was obtained as an oxidized form with a disulfide bond at the CPYC motif. Comparison of the GSH-binding mode in cGrx2 to other known Grxs revealed similarities as well as some diversity.

Structure of Escherichia coli Grx2 in complex with glutathione: a dual-function hybrid of glutaredoxin and glutathione S-transferase

The structure of glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2) from Escherichia coli co-crystallized with glutathione (GSH) was solved at 1.60 Å resolution. The structure of a mutant with the active-site residues Cys9 and Cys12 changed to serine crystallized in the absence of glutathione was solved to 2.4 Å resolution. Grx2 has an N-terminal domain characteristic of glutaredoxins, and the overall structure is congruent with the structure of glutathione S-transferases (GSTs). Purified Grx2 exhibited GST activity. Grx2, which is the physiological electron donor for arsenate reduction by E. coli ArsC, was docked with ArsC. The docked structure could be fitted with GSH bridging the active sites of the two proteins. It is proposed that Grx2 is a novel Grx/GST hybrid that functions in two steps of the ArsC catalytic cycle: as a GST it catalyzes glutathionylation of the ArsC-As(V) intermediate and as a glutaredoxin it catalyzes deglutathionylation of the ArsC-As(III)-SG intermediate.

Redox proteins and radiotherapy

Although conventional radiotherapy can directly damage DNA and other organic molecules within cells, most of the damage and the cytotoxicity of such ionising radiation, comes from the production of ions and free radicals produced via interactions with water. This 'indirect effect', a form of oxidative stress, can be modulated by a variety of systems within cells that are in place to, in normal situations, maintain homeostasis and redox balance. If cancer cells express high levels of antioxidant redox proteins, they may be more resistant to radiation and so targeting such systems may be a profitable strategy to increase therapeutic efficacy of conventional radiotherapy. An overview, with exemplars, of the main systems regulating redox homeostasis is supplied and discussed in relation to their use as prognostic and predictive biomarkers, and how targeting such proteins and systems may increase radiosensitivity and, potentially, improve the radiotherapeutic response.

Protein glutathionylation in cardiovascular diseases

The perturbation of thiol-disulfide homeostasis is an important consequence of many diseases, with redox signals implicated in several physio-pathological processes. A prevalent form of cysteine modification is the reversible formation of protein mixed disulfides with glutathione (S-glutathionylation). The abundance of glutathione in cells and the ready conversion of sulfenic acids to S-glutathione mixed disulfides supports the reversible protein S-glutathionylation as a common feature of redox signal transduction, able to regulate the activities of several redox sensitive proteins. In particular, protein S-glutathionylation is emerging as a critical signaling mechanism in cardiovascular diseases, because it regulates numerous physiological processes involved in cardiovascular homeostasis, including myocyte contraction, oxidative phosphorylation, protein synthesis, vasodilation, glycolytic metabolism and response to insulin. Thus, perturbations in protein glutathionylation status may contribute to the etiology of many cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial infarction, cardiac hypertrophy and atherosclerosis. Various reports show the importance of oxidative cysteine modifications in modulating cardiovascular function. In this review, we illustrate tools and strategies to monitor protein S-glutathionylation and describe the proteins so far identified as glutathionylated in myocardial contraction, hypertrophy and inflammation.

Monothiol glutaredoxins can bind linear [Fe3S4]+ and [Fe4S4]2+ clusters in addition to [Fe2S2]2+ clusters: spectroscopic characterization and functional implications

Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondrial glutaredoxin 5 (Grx5) is the archetypical member of a ubiquitous class of monothiol glutaredoxins with a strictly conserved CGFS active-site sequence that has been shown to function in biological [Fe2S2](2+) cluster trafficking. In this work, we show that recombinant S. cerevisiae Grx5 purified aerobically, after prolonged exposure of the cell-free extract to air or after anaerobic reconstitution in the presence of glutathione, predominantly contains a linear [Fe3S4](+) cluster. The excited-state electronic properties and ground-state electronic and vibrational properties of the linear [Fe3S4](+) cluster have been characterized using UV-vis absorption/CD/MCD, EPR, Mössbauer, and resonance Raman spectroscopies. The results reveal a rhombic S = 5/2 linear [Fe3S4](+) cluster with properties similar to those reported for synthetic linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters and the linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters in purple aconitase. Moreover, the results indicate that the Fe-S cluster content previously reported for many monothiol Grxs has been misinterpreted exclusively in terms of [Fe2S2](2+) clusters, rather than linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters or mixtures of linear [Fe3S4](+) and [Fe2S2](2+) clusters. In the absence of GSH, anaerobic reconstitution of Grx5 yields a dimeric form containing one [Fe4S4](2+) cluster that is competent for in vitro activation of apo-aconitase, via intact cluster transfer. The ligation of the linear [Fe3S4](+) and [Fe4S4](2+) clusters in Grx5 has been assessed by spectroscopic, mutational, and analytical studies. Potential roles for monothiol Grx5 in scavenging and recycling linear [Fe3S4](+) clusters released during protein unfolding under oxidative stress conditions and in maturation of [Fe4S4](2+) cluster-containing proteins are discussed in light of these results.

Iron-sulfur cluster binding by mitochondrial monothiol glutaredoxin-1 of Trypanosoma brucei: molecular basis of iron-sulfur cluster coordination and relevance for parasite infectivity

AIMS

Monothiol glutaredoxins (1-C-Grxs) are small proteins linked to the cellular iron and redox metabolism. Trypanosoma brucei brucei, model organism for human African trypanosomiasis, expresses three 1-C-Grxs. 1-C-Grx1 is a highly abundant mitochondrial protein capable to bind an iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) in vitro using glutathione (GSH) as cofactor. We here report on the functional and structural analysis of 1-C-Grx1 in relation to its ISC-binding properties.

RESULTS

An N-terminal extension unique to 1-C-Grx1 from trypanosomatids affects the oligomeric structure and the ISC-binding capacity of the protein. The active-site Cys104 is essential for ISC binding, and the parasite-specific glutathionylspermidine and trypanothione can replace GSH as the ligands of the ISC. Interestingly, trypanothione forms stable protein-free ISC species that in vitro are incorporated into the dithiol T. brucei 2-C-Grx1, but not 1-C-Grx1. Overexpression of the C104S mutant of 1-C-Grx1 impairs disease progression in a mouse model. The structure of the Grx-domain of 1-C-Grx1 was solved by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Despite the fact that several residues--which in other 1-C-Grxs are involved in the noncovalent binding of GSH--are conserved, different physicochemical approaches did not reveal any specific interaction between 1-C-Grx1 and free thiol ligands.

INNOVATION

Parasite Grxs are able to coordinate an ISC formed with trypanothione, suggesting a new mechanism of ISC binding and a novel function for the parasite-specific dithiol. The first 3D structure and in vivo relevance of a 1-C-Grx from a pathogenic protozoan are reported.

CONCLUSION

T. brucei 1-C-Grx1 is indispensable for mammalian parasitism and utilizes a new mechanism for ISC binding.

Mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins in the trypanothione-based redox metabolism of pathogenic trypanosomes

SIGNIFICANCE

Glutaredoxins are ubiquitous small thiol proteins of the thioredoxin-fold superfamily. Two major groups are distinguished based on their active sites: the dithiol (2-C-Grxs) and the monothiol (1-C-Grxs) glutaredoxins with a CXXC and a CXXS active site motif, respectively. Glutaredoxins are involved in cellular redox and/or iron sulfur metabolism. Usually their functions are closely linked to the glutathione system. Trypanosomatids, the causative agents of several tropical diseases, rely on trypanothione as principal low molecular mass thiol, and their glutaredoxins readily react with the unique bis(glutathionyl) spermidine conjugate.

RECENT ADVANCES

Two 2-C-Grxs and three 1-C-Grxs have been identified in pathogenic trypanosomatids. The 2-C-Grxs catalyze the reduction of glutathione disulfide by trypanothione and display reductase activity towards protein disulfides, as well as protein-glutathione mixed disulfides. In vitro, all three 1-C-Grxs as well as the cytosolic 2-C-Grx of Trypanosoma brucei can complex an iron-sulfur cluster. Recently the structure of the 1-C-Grx1 has been solved by NMR spectroscopy. The structure is very similar to those of other 1-C-Grxs, with some differences in the loop containing the conserved cis-Pro and the surface charge distribution.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Although four of the five trypanosomal glutaredoxins proved to coordinate an iron-sulfur cluster in vitro, the physiological role of the mitochondrial and cytosolic proteins, respectively, has only started to be unraveled.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

The use of trypanothione by the glutaredoxins has established a novel role for this parasite-specific dithiol. Future work should reveal if these differences can be exploited for the development of novel antiparasitic drugs.

Redox environment, free radical, and oxidative DNA damage

SIGNIFICANCE

Effective redox homeostasis is critical, and disruption of this process can have important cellular consequences. An array of systems protect the cell from potentially damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS), however if these systems are overwhelmed, for example, in aberrantly functioning cells, ROS can have a number of detrimental consequences, including DNA damage. Oxidative DNA damage can be repaired by a number of DNA repair pathways, such as base excision repair (BER).

RECENT ADVANCES

The role of ROS in oxidative DNA damage is well established, however, there is an emerging role for ROS and the redox environment in modulating the efficiency of DNA repair pathways targeting oxidative DNA lesions.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Oxidative DNA damage and modulation of DNA damage and repair by the redox environment are implicated in a number of diseases. Understanding how the redox environment plays such a critical role in DNA damage and repair will allow us to further understand the far reaching cellular consequence of ROS.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

In this review, we discuss the detrimental effects of ROS, oxidative DNA damage repair, and the redox systems that exist to control redox homeostasis. We also describe how DNA pathways can be modulated by the redox environment and how the redox environment and oxidative DNA damage plays a role in disease.

Glutaredoxins in thiol/disulfide exchange

SIGNIFICANCE

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are small oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin family of proteins regulating the thiol redox state of several proteins. Thereby, Grxs are key elements in redox signaling.

RECENT ADVANCES

Redox signaling via protein thiols depends on reversible oxidative modifications induced mainly by reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and glutathione (GSH) in form of its oxidized disulfide or S-nitroso-glutathione. Grxs contribute to redox signaling by the catalysis of glutathionylation, de-glutathionylation, as well as reduction of disulfide bridges via two distinct enzymatic mechanisms. The dithiol mechanism utilizes both active site cysteines to reduce disulfides, whereas the monothiol mechanism utilizes only the N-terminal active site cysteine for the reduction of GSH mixed disulfides. The sphere of action of Grxs continues to grow with the recent identification of novel targets.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Because of limited methodological tools, the identification of new substrates for oxidoreductases in general is one of the biggest challenges in this research area.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

With this review, we provide a condensed summary of the current knowledge of thiol/disulfide exchange reactions catalyzed by Grxs regarding the mechanistic, structural, and functional aspects. The latter will be of high importance for future research directions, gaining novel insights into redox signaling in general, and the role of Grxs in particular.

The biological roles of glutaredoxins

Grxs (glutaredoxins) are small ubiquitous redox enzymes. They are generally involved in the reduction of oxidative modifications using glutathione. Grxs are not only able to reduce protein disulfides and the low-molecular-mass antioxidant dehydroascorbate, but also represent the major enzyme class responsible for deglutathionylation reactions. Functional proteomics, including interaction studies, comparative activity measurements using heterologous proteins and structural analysis are combined to provide important insights into the crucial function of Grxs in cellular redox networks. Summarizing the current understanding of Grxs, with a special focus on organelle-localized members across species, genus and kingdom boundaries (including cyanobacteria, plants, bacteria, yeast and humans) lead to two different classifications, one according to sequence structure that gives insights into the diversification of Grxs, and another according to function within the cell that provides a basis for assessing the different roles of Grxs.