Cyanobacterial small chlorophyll-binding protein ScpD (HliB) is located on the periphery of photosystem II in the vicinity of PsbH and CP47 subunits

Investigation of singlet-oxygen-responsive genes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803

Singlet oxygen (1O2) is an important reactive oxygen species whose formation by the type-II, light-dependent, photodynamic reaction is inevitable during photosynthetic processes. In the last decades, the recognition that 1O2 is not only a damaging agent, but can also affect gene expression and participates in signal transduction pathways has received increasing attention. However, contrary to several other taxa, 1O2-responsive genes have not been identified in the important cyanobacterial model organism Synechocystis PCC 6803. By using global transcript analysis we have identified a large set of Synechocystis genes, whose transcript levels were either enhanced or repressed in the presence of 1O2. Characteristic 1O2 responses were observed in several light-inducible genes of Synechocystis, especially in the hli (or scp) family encoding HLIP/SCP proteins involved in photoprotection. Other important 1O2-induced genes include components of the Photosystem II repair machinery (psbA2 and ftsH2, ftsH3), iron homeostasis genes isiA and idiA, the group 2 sigma factor sigD, some components of the transcriptomes induced by salt-, hyperosmotic and cold-stress, as well as several genes of unknown function. The most pronounced 1O2-induced upregulation was observed for the hliB and the co-transcribed lilA genes, whose deletion induced enhanced sensitivity against 1O2-mediated light damage. A bioreporter Synechocystis strain was created by fusing the hliB promoter to the bacterial luciferase (lux), which showed its utility for continuous monitoring of 1O2 concentrations inside the cell.

The Impact of Viral Infection on the Chemistries of the Earth's Most Abundant Photosynthesizes: Metabolically Talented Aquatic Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are the most abundant photosynthesizers on earth, and as such, they play a central role in marine metabolite generation, ocean nutrient cycling, and the control of planetary oxygen generation. Cyanobacteriophage infection exerts control on all of these critical processes of the planet, with the phage-ported homologs of genes linked to photosynthesis, catabolism, and secondary metabolism (marine metabolite generation). Here, we analyze the 153 fully sequenced cyanophages from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database and the 45 auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs) that they deliver into their hosts. Most of these AMGs are homologs of those found within cyanobacteria and play a key role in cyanobacterial metabolism-encoding proteins involved in photosynthesis, central carbon metabolism, phosphate metabolism, methylation, and cellular regulation. A greater understanding of cyanobacteriophage infection will pave the way to a better understanding of carbon fixation and nutrient cycling, as well as provide new tools for synthetic biology and alternative approaches for the use of cyanobacteria in biotechnology and sustainable manufacturing.

LHC-like Proteins: The Guardians of Photosynthesis

The emergence of chlorophyll-containing light-harvesting complexes (LHCs) was a crucial milestone in the evolution of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Light-harvesting chlorophyll-binding proteins form complexes in proximity to the reaction centres of photosystems I and II and serve as an antenna, funnelling the harvested light energy towards the reaction centres, facilitating photochemical quenching, thereby optimizing photosynthesis. It is now generally accepted that the LHC proteins evolved from LHC-like proteins, a diverse family of proteins containing up to four transmembrane helices. Interestingly, LHC-like proteins do not participate in light harvesting to elevate photosynthesis activity under low light. Instead, they protect the photosystems by dissipating excess energy and taking part in non-photochemical quenching processes. Although there is evidence that LHC-like proteins are crucial factors of photoprotection, the roles of only a few of them, mainly the stress-related psbS and lhcSR, are well described. Here, we summarize the knowledge gained regarding the evolution and function of the various LHC-like proteins, with emphasis on those strongly related to photoprotection. We further suggest LHC-like proteins as candidates for improving photosynthesis in significant food crops and discuss future directions in their research.

Coevolution of tandemly repeated hlips and RpaB-like transcriptional factor confers desiccation tolerance to subaerial Nostoc species

Desert-inhabiting cyanobacteria can tolerate extreme desiccation and quickly revive after rehydration. The regulatory mechanisms that enable their vegetative cells to resurrect upon rehydration are poorly understood. In this study, we identified a single gene family of high light-inducible proteins (Hlips) with dramatic expansion in the Nostoc flagelliforme genome and found an intriguingly special convergence formed through four tandem gene duplication. The emerged four independent hlip genes form a gene cluster (hlips-cluster) and respond to dehydration positively. The gene mutants in N. flagelliforme were successfully generated by using gene-editing technology. Phenotypic analysis showed that the desiccation tolerance of hlips-cluster-deleted mutant decreased significantly due to impaired photosystem II repair, whereas heterologous expression of hlips-cluster from N. flagelliforme enhanced desiccation tolerance in Nostoc sp. PCC 7120. Furthermore, a transcription factor Hrf1 (hlips-cluster repressor factor 1) was identified and shown to coordinately regulate the expression of hlips-cluster and desiccation-induced psbAs. Hrf1 acts as a negative regulator for the adaptation of N. flagelliforme to the harsh desert environment. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that most species in the Nostoc genus possess both tandemly repeated Hlips and Hrf1. Our results suggest convergent evolution of desiccation tolerance through the coevolution of tandem Hlips duplication and Hrf1 in subaerial Nostoc species, providing insights into the mechanism of desiccation tolerance in photosynthetic organisms.

Psb34 protein modulates binding of high-light-inducible proteins to CP47-containing photosystem II assembly intermediates in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Assembly of photosystem II (PSII), a water-splitting catalyst in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, requires numerous auxiliary proteins which promote individual steps of this sequential process and transiently associate with one or more assembly intermediate complexes. In this study, we focussed on the role of a PSII-associated protein encoded by the ssl1498 gene in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. The N-terminal domain of this protein, which is here called Psb34, is very similar to the N-terminus of HliA/B proteins belonging to a family of high-light-inducible proteins (Hlips). Psb34 was identified in both dimeric and monomeric PSII, as well as in a PSII monomer lacking CP43 and containing Psb28. When FLAG-tagged, the protein is co-purified with these three complexes and with the PSII auxiliary proteins Psb27 and Psb28. However, the preparation also contained the oxygen-evolving enhancers PsbO and PsbV and lacked HliA/B proteins even when isolated from high-light-treated cells. The data suggest that Psb34 competes with HliA/B for the same binding site and that it is one of the components involved in the final conversion of late PSII assembly intermediates into functional PSII complexes, possibly keeping them free of Hlips. Unlike HliA/B, Psb34 does bind to the CP47 assembly module before its incorporation into PSII. Analysis of strains lacking Psb34 indicates that Psb34 mediates the optimal equilibrium of HliA/B binding among individual PSII assembly intermediates containing CP47, allowing Hlip-mediated photoprotection at all stages of PSII assembly.

High-light-inducible proteins HliA and HliB: pigment binding and protein-protein interactions

High-light-inducible proteins (Hlips) are single-helix transmembrane proteins that are essential for the survival of cyanobacteria under stress conditions. The model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 contains four Hlip isoforms (HliA-D) that associate with Photosystem II (PSII) during its assembly. HliC and HliD are known to form pigmented (hetero)dimers that associate with the newly synthesized PSII reaction center protein D1 in a configuration that allows thermal dissipation of excitation energy. Thus, it is expected that they photoprotect the early steps of PSII biogenesis. HliA and HliB, on the other hand, bind the PSII inner antenna protein CP47, but the mode of interaction and pigment binding have not been resolved. Here, we isolated His-tagged HliA and HliB from Synechocystis and show that these two very similar Hlips do not interact with each other as anticipated, rather they form HliAC and HliBC heterodimers. Both dimers bind Chl and β-carotene in a quenching conformation and associate with the CP47 assembly module as well as later PSII assembly intermediates containing CP47. In the absence of HliC, the cellular levels of HliA and HliB were reduced, and both bound atypically to HliD. We postulate a model in which HliAC-, HliBC-, and HliDC-dimers are the functional Hlip units in Synechocystis. The smallest Hlip, HliC, acts as a 'generalist' that prevents unspecific dimerization of PSII assembly intermediates, while the N-termini of 'specialists' (HliA, B or D) dictate interactions with proteins other than Hlips.

The terminal enzymes of (bacterio)chlorophyll biosynthesis

(Bacterio)chlorophylls are modified tetrapyrroles that are used by phototrophic organisms to harvest solar energy, powering the metabolic processes that sustain most of the life on Earth. Biosynthesis of these pigments involves enzymatic modification of the side chains and oxidation state of a porphyrin precursor, modifications that differ by species and alter the absorption properties of the pigments. (Bacterio)chlorophylls are coordinated by proteins that form macromolecular assemblies to absorb light and transfer excitation energy to a special pair of redox-active (bacterio)chlorophyll molecules in the photosynthetic reaction centre. Assembly of these pigment-protein complexes is aided by an isoprenoid moiety esterified to the (bacterio)chlorin macrocycle, which anchors and stabilizes the pigments within their protein scaffolds. The reduction of the isoprenoid 'tail' and its addition to the macrocycle are the final stages in (bacterio)chlorophyll biosynthesis and are catalysed by two enzymes, geranylgeranyl reductase and (bacterio)chlorophyll synthase. These enzymes work in conjunction with photosynthetic complex assembly factors and the membrane biogenesis machinery to synchronize delivery of the pigments to the proteins that coordinate them. In this review, we summarize current understanding of the catalytic mechanism, substrate recognition and regulation of these crucial enzymes and their involvement in thylakoid biogenesis and photosystem repair in oxygenic phototrophs.

Redesigning the photosynthetic light reactions to enhance photosynthesis - the PhotoRedesign consortium

In this Perspective article, we describe the visions of the PhotoRedesign consortium funded by the European Research Council of how to enhance photosynthesis. The light reactions of photosynthesis in individual phototrophic species use only a fraction of the solar spectrum, and high light intensities can impair and even damage the process. In consequence, expanding the solar spectrum and enhancing the overall energy capacity of the process, while developing resilience to stresses imposed by high light intensities, could have a strong positive impact on food and energy production. So far, the complexity of the photosynthetic machinery has largely prevented improvements by conventional approaches. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop concepts to redesign the light-harvesting and photochemical capacity of photosynthesis, as well as to establish new model systems and toolkits for the next generation of photosynthesis researchers. The overall objective of PhotoRedesign is to reconfigure the photosynthetic light reactions so they can harvest and safely convert energy from an expanded solar spectrum. To this end, a variety of synthetic biology approaches, including de novo design, will combine the attributes of photosystems from different photoautotrophic model organisms, namely the purple bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides, the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and the plant Arabidopsis thaliana. In parallel, adaptive laboratory evolution will be applied to improve the capacity of reimagined organisms to cope with enhanced input of solar energy, particularly in high and fluctuating light.

Psb35 Protein Stabilizes the CP47 Assembly Module and Associated High-Light Inducible Proteins during the Biogenesis of Photosystem II in the Cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803

Photosystem II (PSII) is a large membrane protein complex performing primary charge separation in oxygenic photosynthesis. The biogenesis of PSII is a complicated process that involves a coordinated linking of assembly modules in a precise order. Each such module consists of one large chlorophyll (Chl)-binding protein, number of small membrane polypeptides, pigments and other cofactors. We isolated the CP47 antenna module from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and found that it contains a 11-kDa protein encoded by the ssl2148 gene. This protein was named Psb35 and its presence in the CP47 module was confirmed by the isolation of FLAG-tagged version of Psb35. Using this pulldown assay, we showed that the Psb35 remains attached to CP47 after the integration of CP47 into PSII complexes. However, the isolated Psb35-PSIIs were enriched with auxiliary PSII assembly factors like Psb27, Psb28-1, Psb28-2 and RubA while they lacked the lumenal proteins stabilizing the PSII oxygen-evolving complex. In addition, the Psb35 co-purified with a large unique complex of CP47 and photosystem I trimer. The absence of Psb35 led to a lower accumulation and decreased stability of the CP47 antenna module and associated high-light-inducible proteins but did not change the growth rate of the cyanobacterium under the variety of light regimes. Nevertheless, in comparison with WT, the Psb35-less mutant showed an accelerated pigment bleaching during prolonged dark incubation. The results suggest an involvement of Psb35 in the life cycle of cyanobacterial Chl-binding proteins, especially CP47.

Blue light induces major changes in the gene expression profile of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Although cyanobacteria absorb blue light, they use it less efficiently for photosynthesis than other colors absorbed by their photosynthetic pigments. A plausible explanation for this enigmatic phenomenon is that blue light is not absorbed by phycobilisomes and, hence, causes an excitation shortage at photosystem II (PSII). This hypothesis is supported by recent physiological studies, but a comprehensive understanding of the underlying changes in gene expression is still lacking. In this study, we investigate how a switch from artificial white light to blue, orange or red light affects the transcriptome of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. In total, 145 genes were significantly regulated in response to blue light, whereas only a few genes responded to orange and red light. In particular, genes encoding the D1 and D2 proteins of PSII, the PSII chlorophyll-binding protein CP47 and genes involved in PSII repair were upregulated in blue light, whereas none of the photosystem I (PSI) genes responded to blue light. These changes were accompanied by a decreasing PSI:PSII ratio. Furthermore, many genes involved in gene transcription and translation and several ATP synthase genes were transiently downregulated, concurrent with a temporarily decreased growth rate in blue light. After 6-7 days, when cell densities had strongly declined, the growth rate recovered and the expression of these growth-related genes returned to initial levels. Hence, blue light induces major changes in the transcriptome of cyanobacteria, in an attempt to increase the photosynthetic activity of PSII and cope with the adverse growth conditions imposed by blue light.

LHC-like proteins involved in stress responses and biogenesis/repair of the photosynthetic apparatus

LHC (light-harvesting complex) proteins of plants and algae are known to be involved both in collecting light energy for driving the primary photochemical reactions of photosynthesis and in photoprotection when the absorbed light energy exceeds the capacity of the photosynthetic apparatus. These proteins usually contain three transmembrane (TM) helices which span the thylakoid membranes and bind several chlorophyll, carotenoid and lipid molecules. In addition, the LHC protein family includes LHC-like proteins containing one, two, three or even four TM domains. One-helix proteins are not only present in eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms but also in cyanobacteria where they have been named high light-inducible proteins. These small proteins are probably the ancestors of the members of the extant LHC protein family which arouse through gene duplications, deletions and fusions. During evolution, some of these proteins have diverged and acquired novel functions. In most cases, LHC-like proteins are induced in response to various stress conditions including high light, high salinity, elevated temperature and nutrient limitation. Many of these proteins play key roles in photoprotection, notably in non-photochemical quenching of absorbed light energy. Moreover, some of these proteins appear to be involved in the regulation of chlorophyll synthesis and in the assembly and repair of Photosystem II and also of Photosystem I possibly by mediating the insertion of newly synthesized pigments into the photosynthetic reaction centers.

Singlet oxygen-triggered chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signalling pathways: An emerging perspective

Singlet oxygen (¹ O₂ ) is a prime cause of photo-damage of the photosynthetic apparatus. The chlorophyll molecules in the photosystem II reaction center and in the light-harvesting antenna complex are major sources of ¹ O₂ generation. It has been thought that the generation of ¹ O₂ mainly takes place in the appressed regions of the thylakoid membranes, namely, the grana core, where most of the active photosystem II complexes are localized. Apart from being a toxic molecule, new evidence suggests that ¹ O₂ significantly contributes to chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signalling that primes acclimation and cell death responses. Interestingly, recent studies reveal that chloroplasts operate two distinct ¹ O₂ -triggered retrograde signalling pathways in which β-carotene and a nuclear-encoded chloroplast protein EXECUTER1 play essential roles as signalling mediators. The coexistence of these mediators raises several questions: their crosstalk, source(s) of ¹ O₂ , downstream signalling components, and the perception and reaction mechanism of these mediators towards ¹ O₂ . In this review, we mainly discuss the molecular genetic basis of the mode of action of these two putative ¹ O₂ sensors and their corresponding retrograde signalling pathways. In addition, we also propose the possible existence of an alternative source of ¹ O₂ , which is spatially and functionally separated from the grana core.

Binding of pigments to the cyanobacterial high-light-inducible protein HliC

Cyanobacteria possess a family of one-helix high-light-inducible proteins (HLIPs) that are widely viewed as ancestors of the light-harvesting antenna of plants and algae. HLIPs are essential for viability under various stress conditions, although their exact role is not fully understood. The unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 contains four HLIPs named HliA-D, and HliD has recently been isolated in a small protein complex and shown to bind chlorophyll and β-carotene. However, no HLIP has been isolated and characterized in a pure form up to now. We have developed a protocol to purify large quantities of His-tagged HliC from an engineered Synechocystis strain. Purified His-HliC is a pigmented homo-oligomer and is associated with chlorophyll and β-carotene with a 2:1 ratio. This differs from the 3:1 ratio reported for HliD. Comparison of these two HLIPs by resonance Raman spectroscopy revealed a similar conformation for their bound β-carotenes, but clear differences in their chlorophylls. We present and discuss a structural model of HliC, in which a dimeric protein binds four chlorophyll molecules and two β-carotenes.

Hydrogen Peroxide Participates in Perception and Transduction of Cold Stress Signal in Synechocystis

The double mutant ΔkatG/tpx of cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803, defective in the anti-oxidative enzymes catalase (KatG) and thioredoxin peroxidase (Tpx), is unable to grow in the presence of exogenous H2O2. The ΔkatG/tpx mutant is shown to be extremely sensitive to very low concentrations of H2O2, especially when intensified with cold stress. Analysis of gene expression in both wild-type and ΔkatG/tpx mutant cells treated by combined cold/oxidative stress revealed that H2O2 participates in regulation of expression of cold-responsive genes, affecting either signal perception or transduction. The central role of a transmembrane stress-sensing histidine kinase Hik33 in the cold/oxidative signal transduction pathway is discussed.

The stress-induced SCP/HLIP family of small light-harvesting-like proteins (ScpABCDE) protects Photosystem II from photoinhibitory damages in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

Small CAB-like proteins (SCPs) are single-helix light-harvesting-like proteins found in all organisms performing oxygenic photosynthesis. We investigated the effect of growth in moderate salt stress on these stress-induced proteins in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 depleted of Photosystem I (PSI), which expresses SCPs constitutively, and compared these cells with a PSI-less/ScpABCDE^- mutant. SCPs, by stabilizing chlorophyll-binding proteins and Photosystem II (PSII) assembly, protect PSII from photoinhibitory damages, and in their absence electrons accumulate and will lead to ROS formation. The presence of 0.2 M NaCl in the growth medium increased the respiratory activity and other PSII electron sinks in the PSI-less/ScpABCDE^- strain. We postulate that this salt-induced effect consumes the excess of PSII-generated electrons, reduces the pressure of the electron transport chain, and thereby prevents ¹O₂ production.

The lowest-energy chlorophyll of photosystem II is adjacent to the peripheral antenna: Emitting states of CP47 assigned via circularly polarized luminescence

The identification of low-energy chlorophyll pigments in photosystem II (PSII) is critical to our understanding of the kinetics and mechanism of this important enzyme. We report parallel circular dichroism (CD) and circularly polarized luminescence (CPL) measurements at liquid helium temperatures of the proximal antenna protein CP47. This assembly hosts the lowest-energy chlorophylls in PSII, responsible for the well-known "F695" fluorescence band of thylakoids and PSII core complexes. Our new spectra enable a clear identification of the lowest-energy exciton state of CP47. This state exhibits a small but measurable excitonic delocalization, as predicated by its CD and CPL. Using structure-based simulations incorporating the new spectra, we propose a revised set of site energies for the 16 chlorophylls of CP47. The significant difference from previous analyses is that the lowest-energy pigment is assigned as Chl 612 (alternately numbered Chl 11). The new assignment is readily reconciled with the large number of experimental observations in the literature, while the most common previous assignment for the lowest energy pigment, Chl 627(29), is shown to be inconsistent with CD and CPL results. Chl 612(11) is near the peripheral light-harvesting system in higher plants, in a lumen-exposed region of the thylakoid membrane. The low-energy pigment is also near a recently proposed binding site of the PsbS protein. This result consequently has significant implications for our understanding of the kinetics and regulation of energy transfer in PSII.

The Use of Advanced Mass Spectrometry to Dissect the Life-Cycle of Photosystem II

Photosystem II (PSII) is a photosynthetic membrane-protein complex that undergoes an intricate, tightly regulated cycle of assembly, damage, and repair. The available crystal structures of cyanobacterial PSII are an essential foundation for understanding PSII function, but nonetheless provide a snapshot only of the active complex. To study aspects of the entire PSII life-cycle, mass spectrometry (MS) has emerged as a powerful tool that can be used in conjunction with biochemical techniques. In this article, we present the MS-based approaches that are used to study PSII composition, dynamics, and structure, and review the information about the PSII life-cycle that has been gained by these methods. This information includes the composition of PSII subcomplexes, discovery of accessory PSII proteins, identification of post-translational modifications and quantification of their changes under various conditions, determination of the binding site of proteins not observed in PSII crystal structures, conformational changes that underlie PSII functions, and identification of water and oxygen channels within PSII. We conclude with an outlook for the opportunity of future MS contributions to PSII research.

The Transcriptional Landscape of the Photosynthetic Model Cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803

Cyanobacteria exhibit a great capacity to adapt to different environmental conditions through changes in gene expression. Although this plasticity has been extensively studied in the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, a detailed analysis of the coordinated transcriptional adaption across varying conditions is lacking. Here, we report a meta-analysis of 756 individual microarray measurements conducted in 37 independent studies-the most comprehensive study of the Synechocystis transcriptome to date. Using stringent statistical evaluation, we characterized the coordinated adaptation of Synechocystis' gene expression on systems level. Evaluation of the data revealed that the photosynthetic apparatus is subjected to greater changes in expression than other cellular components. Nevertheless, network analyses indicated a significant degree of transcriptional coordination of photosynthesis and various metabolic processes, and revealed the tight co-regulation of components of photosystems I, II and phycobilisomes. Detailed inspection of the integrated data led to the discovery a variety of regulatory patterns and novel putative photosynthetic genes. Intriguingly, global clustering analyses suggested contrasting transcriptional response of metabolic and regulatory genes stress to conditions. The integrated Synechocystis transcriptome can be accessed and interactively analyzed via the CyanoEXpress website (http://cyanoexpress.sysbiolab.eu).

Synthesis of Chlorophyll-Binding Proteins in a Fully Segregated Δycf54 Strain of the Cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803

In the chlorophyll (Chl) biosynthesis pathway the formation of protochlorophyllide is catalyzed by Mg-protoporphyrin IX methyl ester (MgPME) cyclase. The Ycf54 protein was recently shown to form a complex with another component of the oxidative cyclase, Sll1214 (CycI), and partial inactivation of the ycf54 gene leads to Chl deficiency in cyanobacteria and plants. The exact function of the Ycf54 is not known, however, and further progress depends on construction and characterization of a mutant cyanobacterial strain with a fully inactivated ycf54 gene. Here, we report the complete deletion of the ycf54 gene in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis 6803; the resulting Δycf54 strain accumulates huge concentrations of the cyclase substrate MgPME together with another pigment, which we identified using nuclear magnetic resonance as 3-formyl MgPME. The detection of a small amount (~13%) of Chl in the Δycf54 mutant provides clear evidence that the Ycf54 protein is important, but not essential, for activity of the oxidative cyclase. The greatly reduced formation of protochlorophyllide in the Δycf54 strain provided an opportunity to use (35)S protein labeling combined with 2D electrophoresis to examine the synthesis of all known Chl-binding protein complexes under drastically restricted de novo Chl biosynthesis. We show that although the Δycf54 strain synthesizes very limited amounts of photosystem I and the CP47 and CP43 subunits of photosystem II (PSII), the synthesis of PSII D1 and D2 subunits and their assembly into the reaction centre (RCII) assembly intermediate were not affected. Furthermore, the levels of other Chl complexes such as cytochrome b 6 f and the HliD- Chl synthase remained comparable to wild-type. These data demonstrate that the requirement for de novo Chl molecules differs completely for each Chl-binding protein. Chl traffic and recycling in the cyanobacterial cell as well as the function of Ycf54 are discussed.

Organization of chlorophyll biosynthesis and insertion of chlorophyll into the chlorophyll-binding proteins in chloroplasts

Oxygenic photosynthesis requires chlorophyll (Chl) for the absorption of light energy, and charge separation in the reaction center of photosystem I and II, to feed electrons into the photosynthetic electron transfer chain. Chl is bound to different Chl-binding proteins assembled in the core complexes of the two photosystems and their peripheral light-harvesting antenna complexes. The structure of the photosynthetic protein complexes has been elucidated, but mechanisms of their biogenesis are in most instances unknown. These processes involve not only the assembly of interacting proteins, but also the functional integration of pigments and other cofactors. As a precondition for the association of Chl with the Chl-binding proteins in both photosystems, the synthesis of the apoproteins is synchronized with Chl biosynthesis. This review aims to summarize the present knowledge on the posttranslational organization of Chl biosynthesis and current attempts to envision the proceedings of the successive synthesis and integration of Chl into Chl-binding proteins in the thylakoid membrane. Potential auxiliary factors, contributing to the control and organization of Chl biosynthesis and the association of Chl with the Chl-binding proteins during their integration into photosynthetic complexes, are discussed in this review.

Analysis of photosystem II biogenesis in cyanobacteria

Photosystem II (PSII), a large multisubunit membrane protein complex found in the thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria, algae and plants, catalyzes light-driven oxygen evolution from water and reduction of plastoquinone. Biogenesis of PSII requires coordinated assembly of at least 20 protein subunits, as well as incorporation of various organic and inorganic cofactors. The stepwise assembly process is facilitated by numerous protein factors that have been identified in recent years. Further analysis of this process requires the development or refinement of specific methods for the identification of novel assembly factors and, in particular, elucidation of the unique role of each. Here we summarize current knowledge of PSII biogenesis in cyanobacteria, focusing primarily on the impact of methodological advances and innovations. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Organization and dynamics of bioenergetic systems in bacteria, edited by Conrad Mullineaux.

Association of High Light-Inducible HliA/HliB Stress Proteins with Photosystem 1 Trimers and Monomers of the Cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803

Hlip (high light-inducible proteins) are important for protection of the photosynthetic apparatus of cyanobacteria from light stress. However, the interaction of these proteins with chlorophyll-protein complexes of thylakoids remains unclear. The association of HliA/HliB stress proteins with photosystem 1 (PS1) complexes of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 was studied to understand their function. Western blotting demonstrated that stress-induced HliA/HliB proteins are associated with PS1 trimers in wild-type cells grown under moderate light condition (40 µmol photons/m(2) per sec). The content of these proteins increased 1.7-fold after light stress (150 µmol photons/m(2) per sec) for 1 h. In the absence of PS1 trimers (ΔpsaL mutant), the HliA/HliB proteins are associated with PS1 monomers and the PS2 complex. HliA/HliB proteins are associated with PS1 monomers but not with PS1 trimers in Synechocystis PS2-deficient mutant grown at 5 µmol photons/m(2) per sec; the content of Hli proteins associated with PS1 monomers increased 1.2-fold after light stress. The HliA/HliB proteins were not detected in wild-type cells of cyanobacteria grown in glucose-supplemented medium at 5 µmol photons/m(2) per sec, but light stress induces the synthesis of stress proteins associated with PS1 trimers. Thus, for the first time, the association of HliA/HliB proteins not only with PS1 trimers, but also with PS1 monomers is shown, which suggests a universal role of these proteins in the protection of the photosynthetic apparatus from excess light.

Shedding new light on viral photosynthesis

Viruses infecting the environmentally important marine cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus encode 'auxiliary metabolic genes' (AMGs) involved in the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis. Here, we discuss progress on the inventory of such AMGs in the ever-increasing number of viral genome sequences as well as in metagenomic datasets. We contextualise these gene acquisitions with reference to a hypothesised fitness gain to the phage. We also report new evidence with regard to the sequence and predicted structural properties of viral petE genes encoding the soluble electron carrier plastocyanin. Viral copies of PetE exhibit extensive modifications to the N-terminal signal peptide and possess several novel residues in a region responsible for interaction with redox partners. We also highlight potential knowledge gaps in this field and discuss future opportunities to discover novel phage-host interactions involved in the photosynthetic process.

Regulation of the scp Genes in the Cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803--What is New?

In the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 there are five genes encoding small CAB-like (SCP) proteins, which have been shown to be up-regulated under stress. Analyses of the promoter sequences of the scp genes revealed the existence of an NtcA binding motif in two scp genes, scpB and scpE. Binding of NtcA, the key transcriptional regulator during nitrogen stress, to the promoter regions was shown by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. The metabolite 2-oxoglutarate did not increase the affinity of NtcA for binding to the promoters of scpB and scpE. A second motif, the HIP1 palindrome 5ʹ GGCGATCGCC 3ʹ, was detected in the upstream regions of scpB and scpC. The transcription factor encoded by sll1130 has been suggested to recognize this motif to regulate heat-responsive genes. Our data suggest that HIP1 is not a regulatory element within the scp genes. Further, the presence of the high light regulatory (HLR1) motif was confirmed in scpB-E, in accordance to their induced transcriptions in cells exposed to high light. The HLR1 motif was newly discovered in eight additional genes.

Interaction of the PsbH subunit with a chlorophyll bound to histidine 114 of CP47 is responsible for the red 77K fluorescence of Photosystem II

A characteristic feature of the active Photosystem II (PSII) complex is a red-shifted low temperature fluorescence emission at about 693nm. The origin of this emission has been attributed to a monomeric 'red' chlorophyll molecule located in the CP47 subunit. However, the identity and function of this chlorophyll remain uncertain. In our previous work, we could not detect the red PSII emission in a mutant of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 lacking PsbH, a small transmembrane subunit bound to CP47. However, it has not been clear whether the PsbH is structurally essential for the red emission or the observed effect of mutation has been indirectly caused by compromised PSII stability and function. In the present work we performed a detailed spectroscopic characterization of PSII in cells of a mutant lacking PsbH and Photosystem I and we also characterized PSII core complexes isolated from this mutant. In addition, we purified and characterized the CP47 assembly modules containing and lacking PsbH. The results clearly confirm an essential role of PsbH in the origin of the PSII red emission and also demonstrate that PsbH stabilizes the binding of one β-carotene molecule in PSII. Crystal structures of the cyanobacterial PSII show that PsbH directly interacts with a single monomeric chlorophyll ligated by the histidine 114 residue of CP47 and we conclude that this peripheral chlorophyll hydrogen-bonded to PsbH is responsible for the red fluorescence state of CP47. Given the proximity of β-carotene this state could participate in the dissipation of excessive light energy.

The small regulatory RNA SyR1/PsrR1 controls photosynthetic functions in cyanobacteria

Little is known so far about RNA regulators of photosynthesis in plants, algae, or cyanobacteria. The small RNA PsrR1 (formerly SyR1) has been discovered in Synechocystis sp PCC 6803 and appears to be widely conserved within the cyanobacterial phylum. Expression of PsrR1 is induced shortly after a shift from moderate to high-light conditions. Artificial overexpression of PsrR1 led to a bleaching phenotype under moderate light growth conditions. Advanced computational target prediction suggested that several photosynthesis-related mRNAs could be controlled by PsrR1, a finding supported by the results of transcriptome profiling experiments upon pulsed overexpression of this small RNA in Synechocystis sp PCC 6803. We confirmed the interaction between PsrR1 and the ribosome binding regions of the psaL, psaJ, chlN, and cpcA mRNAs by mutational analysis in a heterologous reporter system. Focusing on psaL as a specific target, we show that the psaL mRNA is processed by RNase E only in the presence of PsrR1. Furthermore, we provide evidence for a posttranscriptional regulation of psaL by PsrR1 in the wild type at various environmental conditions and analyzed the consequences of PsrR1-based regulation on photosystem I. In summary, computational and experimental data consistently establish the small RNA PsrR1 as a regulatory factor controlling photosynthetic functions.

A cyanobacterial chlorophyll synthase-HliD complex associates with the Ycf39 protein and the YidC/Alb3 insertase

Macromolecular membrane assemblies of chlorophyll-protein complexes efficiently harvest and trap light energy for photosynthesis. To investigate the delivery of chlorophylls to the newly synthesized photosystem apoproteins, a terminal enzyme of chlorophyll biosynthesis, chlorophyll synthase (ChlG), was tagged in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 (Synechocystis) and used as bait in pull-down experiments. We retrieved an enzymatically active complex comprising ChlG and the high-light-inducible protein HliD, which associates with the Ycf39 protein, a putative assembly factor for photosystem II, and with the YidC/Alb3 insertase. 2D electrophoresis and immunoblotting also provided evidence for the presence of SecY and ribosome subunits. The isolated complex contained chlorophyll, chlorophyllide, and carotenoid pigments. Deletion of hliD elevated the level of the ChlG substrate, chlorophyllide, more than 6-fold; HliD is apparently required for assembly of FLAG-ChlG into larger complexes with other proteins such as Ycf39. These data reveal a link between chlorophyll biosynthesis and the Sec/YidC-dependent cotranslational insertion of nascent photosystem polypeptides into membranes. We expect that this close physical linkage coordinates the arrival of pigments and nascent apoproteins to produce photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes with minimal risk of accumulating phototoxic unbound chlorophylls.

Discovery of a chlorophyll binding protein complex involved in the early steps of photosystem II assembly in Synechocystis

Efficient assembly and repair of the oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) complex is vital for maintaining photosynthetic activity in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. How chlorophyll is delivered to PSII during assembly and how vulnerable assembly complexes are protected from photodamage are unknown. Here, we identify a chlorophyll and β-carotene binding protein complex in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 important for formation of the D1/D2 reaction center assembly complex. It is composed of putative short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase Ycf39, encoded by the slr0399 gene, and two members of the high-light-inducible protein (Hlip) family, HliC and HliD, which are small membrane proteins related to the light-harvesting chlorophyll binding complexes found in plants. Perturbed chlorophyll recycling in a Ycf39-null mutant and copurification of chlorophyll synthase and unassembled D1 with the Ycf39-Hlip complex indicate a role in the delivery of chlorophyll to newly synthesized D1. Sequence similarities suggest the presence of a related complex in chloroplasts.

Making proteins green; biosynthesis of chlorophyll-binding proteins in cyanobacteria

Chlorophyll (Chl) is an essential component of the photosynthetic apparatus. Embedded into Chl-binding proteins, Chl molecules play a central role in light harvesting and charge separation within the photosystems. It is critical for the photosynthetic cell to not only ensure the synthesis of a sufficient amount of new Chl-binding proteins but also avoids any misbalance between apoprotein synthesis and the formation of potentially phototoxic Chl molecules. According to the available data, Chl-binding proteins are translated on membrane bound ribosomes and their integration into the membrane is provided by the SecYEG/Alb3 translocon machinery. It appears that the insertion of Chl molecules into growing polypeptide is a prerequisite for the correct folding and finishing of Chl-binding protein synthesis. Although the Chl biosynthetic pathway is fairly well-described on the level of enzymatic steps, a link between Chl biosynthesis and the synthesis of apoproteins remains elusive. In this review, I summarize the current knowledge about this issue putting emphasis on protein-protein interactions. I present a model of the Chl biosynthetic pathway organized into a multi-enzymatic complex and physically attached to the SecYEG/Alb3 translocon. Localization of this hypothetical large biosynthetic centre in the cyanobacterial cell is also discussed as well as regulatory mechanisms coordinating the rate of Chl and apoprotein synthesis.

Functional analysis of light-harvesting-like protein 3 (LIL3) and its light-harvesting chlorophyll-binding motif in Arabidopsis

The light-harvesting complex (LHC) constitutes the major light-harvesting antenna of photosynthetic eukaryotes. LHC contains a characteristic sequence motif, termed LHC motif, consisting of 25-30 mostly hydrophobic amino acids. This motif is shared by a number of transmembrane proteins from oxygenic photoautotrophs that are termed light-harvesting-like (LIL) proteins. To gain insights into the functions of LIL proteins and their LHC motifs, we functionally characterized a plant LIL protein, LIL3. This protein has been shown previously to stabilize geranylgeranyl reductase (GGR), a key enzyme in phytol biosynthesis. It is hypothesized that LIL3 functions to anchor GGR to membranes. First, we conjugated the transmembrane domain of LIL3 or that of ascorbate peroxidase to GGR and expressed these chimeric proteins in an Arabidopsis mutant lacking LIL3 protein. As a result, the transgenic plants restored phytol-synthesizing activity. These results indicate that GGR is active as long as it is anchored to membranes, even in the absence of LIL3. Subsequently, we addressed the question why the LHC motif is conserved in the LIL3 sequences. We modified the transmembrane domain of LIL3, which contains the LHC motif, by substituting its conserved amino acids (Glu-171, Asn-174, and Asp-189) with alanine. As a result, the Arabidopsis transgenic plants partly recovered the phytol-biosynthesizing activity. However, in these transgenic plants, the LIL3-GGR complexes were partially dissociated. Collectively, these results indicate that the LHC motif of LIL3 is involved in the complex formation of LIL3 and GGR, which might contribute to the GGR reaction.

Crystal structure of the Psb28 accessory factor of Thermosynechococcus elongatus photosystem II at 2.3 Å

Members of the Psb28 family of proteins are accessory factors implicated in the assembly and repair of the photosystem II complex. We present here the crystal structure of the Psb28 protein (Tlr0493) found in the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus at a resolution of 2.3 Å. Overall the crystal structure of the Psb28 monomer is similar to the solution structures of C-terminally His-tagged Psb28-1 from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 obtained previously by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. One new aspect is that Escherichia coli-expressed T. elongatus Psb28 is able to form dimers in solution and packs as a dimer of dimers in the crystal. Analysis of wild type and mutant strains of Synechocystis 6803 by blue native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis suggests that Psb28-1, the closest homologue to T. elongatus Psb28 in this organism, also exists as an oligomer in vivo, most likely a dimer. In line with the prediction based on the crystal structure of T. elongatus Psb28, the addition of a 3× Flag-tag to the C-terminus of Synechocystis 6803 Psb28-1 interferes with the accumulation of the Psb28-1 oligomer in vivo. In contrast, the more distantly related Psb28-2 protein found in Synechocystis 6803 lacks the residues that stabilize dimer formation in the T. elongatus Psb28 crystal and is detected as a monomer in vivo. Overall our data suggest that the dimer interface in the Psb28 crystal might be physiologically relevant.

Subunit composition of CP43-less photosystem II complexes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: implications for the assembly and repair of photosystem II

Photosystem II (PSII) mutants are useful experimental tools to trap potential intermediates involved in the assembly of the oxygen-evolving PSII complex. Here, we focus on the subunit composition of the RC47 assembly complex that accumulates in a psbC null mutant of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 unable to make the CP43 apopolypeptide. By using native gel electrophoresis, we showed that RC47 is heterogeneous and mainly found as a monomer of 220 kDa. RC47 complexes co-purify with small Cab-like proteins (ScpC and/or ScpD) and with Psb28 and its homologue Psb28-2. Analysis of isolated His-tagged RC47 indicated the presence of D1, D2, the CP47 apopolypeptide, plus nine of the 13 low-molecular-mass (LMM) subunits found in the PSII holoenzyme, including PsbL, PsbM and PsbT, which lie at the interface between the two momomers in the dimeric holoenzyme. Not detected were the LMM subunits (PsbK, PsbZ, Psb30 and PsbJ) located in the vicinity of CP43 in the holoenzyme. The photochemical activity of isolated RC47-His complexes, including the rate of reduction of P680⁺, was similar to that of PSII complexes lacking the Mn₄CaO₅ cluster. The implications of our results for the assembly and repair of PSII in vivo are discussed.

Small CAB-like proteins prevent formation of singlet oxygen in the damaged photosystem II complex of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

The cyanobacterial small CAB-like proteins (SCPs) are single-helix membrane proteins mostly associated with the photosystem II (PSII) complex that accumulate under stress conditions. Their function is still ambiguous although they are assumed to regulate chlorophyll (Chl) biosynthesis and/or to protect PSII against oxidative damage. In this study, the effect of SCPs on the PSII-specific light-induced damage and generation of singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)) was assessed in the strains of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 lacking PSI (PSI-less strain) or lacking PSI together with all SCPs (PSI-less/scpABCDE(-) strain). The light-induced oxidative modifications of the PSII D1 protein reflected by a mobility shift of the D1 protein and by generation of a D1-cytochrome b-559 adduct were more pronounced in the PSI-less/scpABCDE(-) strain. This increased protein oxidation correlated with a faster formation of (1)O(2) as detected by the green fluorescence of Singlet Oxygen Sensor Green assessed by a laser confocal scanning microscopy and by electron paramagnetic resonance spin-trapping technique using 2, 2, 6, 6-tetramethyl-4-piperidone (TEMPD) as a spin trap. In contrast, the formation of hydroxyl radicals was similar in both strains. Our results show that SCPs prevent (1)O(2) formation during PSII damage, most probably by the binding of free Chl released from the damaged PSII complexes.

Acclimation to high-light conditions in cyanobacteria: from gene expression to physiological responses

Photosynthetic organisms have evolved various acclimatory responses to high-light (HL) conditions to maintain a balance between energy supply (light harvesting and electron transport) and consumption (cellular metabolism) and to protect the photosynthetic apparatus from photodamage. The molecular mechanism of HL acclimation has been extensively studied in the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Whole genome DNA microarray analyses have revealed that the change in gene expression profile under HL is closely correlated with subsequent acclimatory responses such as (1) acceleration in the rate of photosystem II turnover, (2) downregulation of light harvesting capacity, (3) development of a protection mechanism for the photosystems against excess light energy, (4) upregulation of general protection mechanism components, and (5) regulation of carbon and nitrogen assimilation. In this review article, we survey recent progress in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of these acclimatory responses in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. We also briefly describe attempts to understand HL acclimation in various cyanobacterial species in their natural environments.

Photosystem II component lifetimes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803: small Cab-like proteins stabilize biosynthesis intermediates and affect early steps in chlorophyll synthesis

To gain insight in the lifetimes of photosystem II (PSII) chlorophyll and proteins, a combined stable isotope labeling (15N)/mass spectrometry method was used to follow both old and new pigments and proteins. Photosystem I-less Synechocystis cells were grown to exponential or post-exponential phase and then diluted in BG-11 medium with [15N]ammonium and [15N]nitrate. PSII was isolated, and the masses of PSII protein fragments and chlorophyll were determined. Lifetimes of PSII components ranged from 1.5 to 40 h, implying that at least some of the proteins and chlorophyll turned over independently from each other. Also, a significant amount of nascent PSII components accumulated in thylakoids when cells were in post-exponential growth phase. In a mutant lacking small Cab-like proteins (SCPs), most PSII protein lifetimes were unaffected, but the lifetime of chlorophyll and the amount of nascent PSII components that accumulated were decreased. In the absence of SCPs, one of the PSII biosynthesis intermediates, the monomeric PSII complex without CP43, was missing. Therefore, SCPs may stabilize nascent PSII protein complexes. Moreover, upon SCP deletion, the rate of chlorophyll synthesis and the accumulation of early tetrapyrrole precursors were drastically reduced. When [14N]aminolevulinic acid (ALA) was supplemented to 15N-BG-11 cultures, the mutant lacking SCPs incorporated much more exogenous ALA into chlorophyll than the control demonstrating that ALA biosynthesis was impaired in the absence of SCPs. This illustrates the major effects that nonstoichiometric PSII components such as SCPs have on intermediates and assembly but not on the lifetime of PSII proteins.

Photosystem II, a growing complex: updates on newly discovered components and low molecular mass proteins

Photosystem II is a unique complex capable of absorbing light and splitting water. The complex has been thoroughly studied and to date there are more than 40 proteins identified, which bind to the complex either stably or transiently. Another special feature of this complex is the unusually high content of low molecular mass proteins that represent more than half of the proteins. In this review we summarize the recent findings on the low molecular mass proteins (<15kDa) and present an overview of the newly identified components as well. We have also performed co-expression analysis of the genes encoding PSII proteins to see if the low molecular mass proteins form a specific sub-group within the Photosystem II complex. Interestingly we found that the chloroplast-localized genes encoding PSII proteins display a different response to environmental and stress conditions compared to the nuclear localized genes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosystem II.

Molecular mechanisms of production and scavenging of reactive oxygen species by photosystem II

Photosystem II (PSII) is a multisubunit protein complex in cyanobacteria, algae and plants that use light energy for oxidation of water and reduction of plastoquinone. The conversion of excitation energy absorbed by chlorophylls into the energy of separated charges and subsequent water-plastoquinone oxidoreductase activity are inadvertently coupled with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Singlet oxygen is generated by the excitation energy transfer from triplet chlorophyll formed by the intersystem crossing from singlet chlorophyll and the charge recombination of separated charges in the PSII antenna complex and reaction center of PSII, respectively. Apart to the energy transfer, the electron transport associated with the reduction of plastoquinone and the oxidation of water is linked to the formation of superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical. To protect PSII pigments, proteins and lipids against the oxidative damage, PSII evolved a highly efficient antioxidant defense system comprising either a non-enzymatic (prenyllipids such as carotenoids and prenylquinols) or an enzymatic (superoxide dismutase and catalase) scavengers. It is pointed out here that both the formation and the scavenging of ROS are controlled by the energy level and the redox potential of the excitation energy transfer and the electron transport carries, respectively. The review is focused on the mechanistic aspects of ROS production and scavenging by PSII. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosystem II.

The small CAB-like proteins of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: their involvement in chlorophyll biogenesis for Photosystem II

The five small CAB-like proteins (ScpA-E) of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 belong to the family of stress-induced light-harvesting-like proteins, but are constitutively expressed in a mutant deficient of Photosystem I (PSI). Using absorption, fluorescence and thermoluminescence measurements this PSI-less strain was compared with a mutant, in which all SCPs were additionally deleted. Depletion of SCPs led to structural rearrangements in Photosystem II (PSII): less photosystems were assembled; and in these, the Q(B) site was modified. Despite the lower amount of PSII, the SCP-deficient cells contained the same amount of phycobilisomes (PBS) as the control. Although the excess PBS were functionally disconnected, their fluorescence was quenched under high irradiance by the activated Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP). Additionally the amount of OCP, but not of the iron-stress induced protein (isiA), was higher in this SCP-depleted mutant compared with the control. As previously described, the lack of SCPs affects the chlorophyll biosynthesis (Vavilin, D., Brune, D. C., Vermaas, W. (2005) Biochim Biophys Acta 1708, 91-101). We demonstrate that chlorophyll synthesis is required for efficient PSII repair and that it is partly impaired in the absence of SCPs. At the same time, the amount of chlorophyll also seems to influence the expression of ScpC and ScpD.

Functional assignments for the carboxyl-terminal domains of the ferrochelatase from Synechocystis PCC 6803: the CAB domain plays a regulatory role, and region II is essential for catalysis

Ferrochelatase (FeCH) catalyzes the insertion of Fe(2+) into protoporphyrin, forming protoheme. In photosynthetic organisms, FeCH and magnesium chelatase lie at a biosynthetic branch point where partitioning down the heme and chlorophyll (Chl) pathways occurs. Unlike their mammalian, yeast, and other bacterial counterparts, cyanobacterial and algal FeCHs as well as FeCH2 isoform from plants possess a carboxyl-terminal Chl a/b-binding (CAB) domain with a conserved Chl-binding motif. The CAB domain is connected to the FeCH catalytic core by a proline-rich linker sequence (region II). In order to dissect the regulatory, catalytic, and structural roles of the region II and CAB domains, we analyzed a FeCH ΔH347 mutant that retains region II but lacks the CAB domain and compared it with the ΔH324-FeCH mutant that lacks both these domains. We found that the CAB domain is not required for catalytic activity but is essential for dimerization of FeCH; its absence causes aberrant accumulation of Chl-protein complexes under high light accompanied by high levels of the Chl precursor chlorophyllide. Thus, the CAB domain appears to serve mainly a regulatory function, possibly in balancing Chl biosynthesis with the synthesis of cognate apoproteins. Region II is essential for the catalytic function of the plastid-type FeCH enzyme, although the low residual activity of the ΔH324-FeCH is more than sufficient to furnish the cellular demand for heme. We propose that the apparent surplus of FeCH activity in the wild type is critical for cell viability under high light due to a regulatory role of FeCH in the distribution of Chl into apoproteins.

Investigating the early stages of photosystem II assembly in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803: isolation of CP47 and CP43 complexes

Biochemical characterization of intermediates involved in the assembly of the oxygen-evolving Photosystem II (PSII) complex is hampered by their low abundance in the membrane. Using the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, we describe here the isolation of the CP47 and CP43 subunits, which, during biogenesis, attach to a reaction center assembly complex containing D1, D2, and cytochrome b(559), with CP47 binding first. Our experimental approach involved a combination of His tagging, the use of a D1 deletion mutant that blocks PSII assembly at an early stage, and, in the case of CP47, the additional inactivation of the FtsH2 protease involved in degrading unassembled PSII proteins. Absorption spectroscopy and pigment analyses revealed that both CP47-His and CP43-His bind chlorophyll a and β-carotene. A comparison of the low temperature absorption and fluorescence spectra in the Q(Y) region for CP47-His and CP43-His with those for CP47 and CP43 isolated by fragmentation of spinach PSII core complexes confirmed that the spectroscopic properties are similar but not identical. The measured fluorescence quantum yield was generally lower for the proteins isolated from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, and a 1-3-nm blue shift and a 2-nm red shift of the 77 K emission maximum could be observed for CP47-His and CP43-His, respectively. Immunoblotting and mass spectrometry revealed the co-purification of PsbH, PsbL, and PsbT with CP47-His and of PsbK and Psb30/Ycf12 with CP43-His. Overall, our data support the view that CP47 and CP43 form preassembled pigment-protein complexes in vivo before their incorporation into the PSII complex.

Domain location within the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein investigated by electron microscopy and gold labelling

The domain organisation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein was studied using electron microscopy of detergent-solubilised dimeric complexes. Ni-NTA nanogold labelling data suggest that in the nonphosphorylated, nucleotide-free state, the C-terminus is intimately associated with the cytoplasmic ATP-binding regions, whilst part of the regulatory domain occupies a position close to the cytoplasmic surface of the lipid membrane. Removal of the entire second nucleotide binding domain (NBD2) results in a deficit in the CFTR structure that is consistent with the size and shape of a single NBD. The data suggest that NBD2 lies closer to the C2 symmetry axis than the first nucleotide binding domain (NBD1) and that NBD2 from one CFTR monomer also contacts NBD1 from the opposing one. These data suggest that current homology models for CFTR based on other ATP-binding cassette proteins appear to be reasonable, at least to low resolution. We also find that Ni-NTA nanogold labelling of an internal hexa-Histidine sequence is a valuable approach to locate individual protein domains.

Recent advances in understanding the assembly and repair of photosystem II

BACKGROUND

Photosystem II (PSII) is the light-driven water:plastoquinone oxidoreductase of oxygenic photosynthesis and is found in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. Considerable attention is focused on how PSII is assembled in vivo and how it is repaired following irreversible damage by visible light (so-called photoinhibition). Understanding these processes might lead to the development of plants with improved growth characteristics especially under conditions of abiotic stress.

SCOPE

Here we summarize recent results on the assembly and repair of PSII in cyanobacteria, which are excellent model organisms to study higher plant photosynthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

Assembly of PSII is highly co-ordinated and proceeds through a number of distinct assembly intermediates. Associated with these assembly complexes are proteins that are not found in the final functional PSII complex. Structural information and possible functions are beginning to emerge for several of these 'assembly' factors, notably Ycf48/Hcf136, Psb27 and Psb28. A number of other auxiliary proteins have been identified that appear to have evolved since the divergence of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. The repair of PSII involves partial disassembly of the damaged complex, the selective replacement of the damaged sub-unit (predominantly the D1 sub-unit) by a newly synthesized copy, and reassembly. It is likely that chlorophyll released during the repair process is temporarily stored by small CAB-like proteins (SCPs). A model is proposed in which damaged D1 is removed in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 by a hetero-oligomeric complex composed of two different types of FtsH sub-unit (FtsH2 and FtsH3), with degradation proceeding from the N-terminus of D1 in a highly processive reaction. It is postulated that a similar mechanism of D1 degradation also operates in chloroplasts. Deg proteases are not required for D1 degradation in Synechocystis 6803 but members of this protease family might play a supplementary role in D1 degradation in chloroplasts under extreme conditions.

Temporal dynamics of Prochlorococcus ecotypes in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans

To better understand the temporal and spatial dynamics of Prochlorococcus populations, and how these populations co-vary with the physical environment, we followed monthly changes in the abundance of five ecotypes-two high-light adapted and three low-light adapted-over a 5-year period in coordination with the Bermuda Atlantic Time Series (BATS) and Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT) programs. Ecotype abundance displayed weak seasonal fluctuations at HOT and strong seasonal fluctuations at BATS. Furthermore, stable 'layered' depth distributions, where different Prochlorococcus ecotypes reached maximum abundance at different depths, were maintained consistently for 5 years at HOT. Layered distributions were also observed at BATS, although winter deep mixing events disrupted these patterns each year and produced large variations in ecotype abundance. Interestingly, the layered ecotype distributions were regularly reestablished each year after deep mixing subsided at BATS. In addition, Prochlorococcus ecotypes each responded differently to the strong seasonal changes in light, temperature and mixing at BATS, resulting in a reproducible annual succession of ecotype blooms. Patterns of ecotype abundance, in combination with physiological assays of cultured isolates, confirmed that the low-light adapted eNATL could be distinguished from other low-light adapted ecotypes based on its ability to withstand temporary exposure to high-intensity light, a characteristic stress of the surface mixed layer. Finally, total Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus dynamics were compared with similar time series data collected a decade earlier at each location. The two data sets were remarkably similar-testimony to the resilience of these complex dynamic systems on decadal time scales.