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Alyusuf RS, Wazir JF, Brahmi UP, Fakhro ARE, Toorani ZA, Rezk Y. The Pattern of Expression of Human Placental Lactogen Across Normal, Lactational, and Malignant Mammary Epithelium. Cureus 2023; 15:e35125. [PMID: 36945262 PMCID: PMC10025576 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.35125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The immunoexpression of human placental lactogen (hPL) in mammary epithelium is not well studied in the literature. Our overall objective was to delineate the distribution pattern of hPL across mammary epithelia of varying levels of differentiation. This is the first research to study the level of expression of hPL in human lactational change epithelium. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) for hPL was performed on archival formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks of 97 cases. These consisted of 53 invasive ductal carcinomas, 21 lactational change cases, and 23 cases of normal mammary tissue. The results of this study show underexpression of hPL in malignant epithelium compared to normal and lactational groups individually and combined as a non-malignant group. However, a higher expression of hPL was noted in mammary carcinoma of axillary lymph node (ALN)-positive patients compared to ALN-negative cases. There was no statistically significant difference between hPL expression and tumor grade, estrogen receptors (ER), progesterone receptors (PR), or human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status. The comparison of the immunoexpression of hPL in malignant epithelium versus lactational change epithelium may provide the basis for future studies on the possible role of hPL in the protective mechanism of lactation tissue from carcinogenesis. Our results could be explained by the proposed mechanism in the literature, which is that breast cancer cells have a potential inhibitory effect on the translation of human chorionic somatotropin hormone (CSH) mRNA into hPL protein. Our results support the literature findings of a poorer prognostic outcome for breast malignancies when hPL is expressed but require further studies using a more comprehensive range of clinical parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja S Alyusuf
- Pathology, Salmaniya Medical Complex, Manama, BHR
- Pathology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland - Bahrain, Muharraq, BHR
| | | | | | | | - Zainab A Toorani
- Pathology, Salmaniya Medical Complex, Manama, BHR
- Pathology, The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Muharraq, BHR
| | - Yousef Rezk
- College of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland - Bahrain, Muharraq, BHR
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Wei S, Gao L, Wu C, Qin F, Yuan J. Role of the lysyl oxidase family in organ development (Review). Exp Ther Med 2020; 20:163-172. [PMID: 32536990 PMCID: PMC7282176 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2020.8731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase proteins (LOXs) are amine oxidases, which are mainly located in smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts and serve an important role in the formation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in a copper-dependent manner. Owing to the ability of LOX proteins to modulate crosslinking between collagens and to promote the deposition of other fibers, they serve crucially in organogenesis and the subsequent organ development, as well as disease initiation and progression. In addition, ECM formation significantly influences organ morphological formation in both cancer- and non-tumor-related diseases, in addition to cellular epigenetic transformation and migration, under the influence of LOXs. A number of different signaling pathways regulate the LOXs expression and their enzymatic activation. The tissue remodeling and transformation process shares some resemblance between oncogenesis and embryogenesis. Additionally the roles that LOXs serve appeared to be stressed during oncogenesis and tumor metastasis. It has also been indicated LOXs have a noteworthy role in non-tumor diseases. Nonetheless, the role of LOXs in systemic or local organ development and disease control remains unknown. In the present study, the essential roles that LOXs play in embryogenesis were unveiled partially, whereas the role of LOXs in organ or systematic development requires further investigations. The present review aimed to discuss the roles of members of the LOX family in the context of the remodeling of organogenesis and organ development. In addition, the consequences of the malfunction of these proteins related to the development of abnormalities and resulting diseases is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanzun Wei
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China.,Department of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Liang Gao
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China.,Department of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Changjing Wu
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Feng Qin
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Jiuhong Yuan
- Andrology Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China.,Department of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
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Añazco C, López-Jiménez AJ, Rafi M, Vega-Montoto L, Zhang MZ, Hudson BG, Vanacore RM. Lysyl Oxidase-like-2 Cross-links Collagen IV of Glomerular Basement Membrane. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:25999-26012. [PMID: 27770022 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.738856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The 7S dodecamer is recognized as an important structural cross-linking domain of collagen IV networks that provide mechanical stability to basement membranes, a specialized form of extracellular matrix essential for the development and maintenance of tissue architecture. Although the 7S dodecamer is stabilized by covalent cross-linking, the molecular mechanism by which such cross-links are formed has not been revealed. Here, we aimed to identify the enzyme(s) that cross-links the 7S dodecamer and characterize its expression in the kidney glomerulus. Pharmacological inhibition of candidate extracellular matrix enzymes revealed that lysyl oxidase activity is required for cross-linking of 7S polypeptides. Among all lysyl oxidase family members, lysyl oxidase-like-2 (LOXL2) was identified as the isoform cross-linking collagen IV in mouse embryonal PFHR-9 cells. Biochemical analyses revealed that LOXL2 readily promoted the formation of lysyl-derived cross-links in the 7S dodecamer but not in the NC1 domain. We also established that LOXL2 is the main lysyl oxidase family member present in the glomerular extracellular matrix. Altogether, we demonstrate that LOXL2 is a novel component of the molecular machinery that forms cross-linked collagen IV networks, which are essential for glomerular basement membrane stability and molecular ultrafiltration function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Añazco
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and.,Center for Matrix Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Alberto J López-Jiménez
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and.,Center for Matrix Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Mohamed Rafi
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Lorenzo Vega-Montoto
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and.,Center for Matrix Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Ming-Zhi Zhang
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Billy G Hudson
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and.,Center for Matrix Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Roberto M Vanacore
- From the Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Medicine, and .,Center for Matrix Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
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Wang Y, Ma J, Shen H, Wang C, Sun Y, Howell SB, Lin X. Reactive oxygen species promote ovarian cancer progression via the HIF-1α/LOX/E-cadherin pathway. Oncol Rep 2014; 32:2150-8. [PMID: 25174950 PMCID: PMC4440217 DOI: 10.3892/or.2014.3448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can drive the de-differentiation of tumor cells leading to the process of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to enhance invasion and metastasis. The invasive and metastatic phenotype of malignant cells is often linked to loss of E-cadherin expression, a hallmark of EMT. Recent studies have demonstrated that hypoxic exposure causes HIF-1-dependent repression of E-cadherin. However, the mechanism by which ROS and/or HIF suppresses E-cadherin expression remains less clear. In the present study, we found that ROS accumulation in ovarian carcinoma cells upregulated HIF-1α expression and subsequent transcriptional induction of lysyl oxidase (LOX) which repressed E-cadherin. Loss of E-cadherin facilitated ovarian cancer (OC) cell migration in vitro and promoted tumor growth in vivo. E-cadherin immunoreactivity correlated with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage, tumor differentiation and metastasis. Negative E-cadherin expression along with FIGO stage, tumor differentiation and metastasis significantly predicted for a lower 5-year survival rate. These findings suggest that ROS play an important role in the initiation of metastatic growth of OC cells and support a molecular pathway from ROS to aggressive transformation which involves upregulation of HIF-1α and its downstream target LOX to suppress E-cadherin expression leading to an increase in cell motility and invasiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Jun Ma
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Haoran Shen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Chengjie Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Yueping Sun
- Department of Cell Biology, Key Laboratory of the Education Ministry for Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis, Institutes of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Stephen B Howell
- Department of Medicine and UC San Diego Moores Cancer Center, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Xinjian Lin
- Department of Medicine and UC San Diego Moores Cancer Center, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Okkelman IA, Sukaeva AZ, Kirukhina EV, Korneenko TV, Pestov NB. Nuclear translocation of lysyl oxidase is promoted by interaction with transcription repressor p66β. Cell Tissue Res 2014; 358:481-9. [PMID: 25118846 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1972-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is an amine oxidase involved in protein cross-linking of the extracellular matrix. Less well characterized is the role that LOX plays among nuclear proteins, and molecular mechanisms of its transport to the nucleus are currently unknown. Here, we have employed yeast two-hybrid library screening and found that the LOX catalytic domain interacts with the transcription repressor p66β. This interaction has been confirmed in vitro and has been found to be accomplished through the CR2-containing domain of p66β. Moreover, co-expression of p66β and LOX in living tumor cells leads to the nuclear accumulation of LOX. Thus, p66β might be important for the regulation of LOX in the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina A Okkelman
- Shemyakin and Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
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Fang M, Peng CW, Yuan JP, Zhang ZL, Pang DW, Li Y. Coevolution of the tumor microenvironment revealed by quantum dot-based multiplexed imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma. Future Oncol 2014; 9:1029-37. [PMID: 23837765 DOI: 10.2217/fon.13.63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM This study aimed to provide new insights into the mechanisms of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) invasion by simultaneously imaging tumor cells and major components of the tumor microenvironment. MATERIALS & METHODS Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded human HCC tissues were studied by conventional immunohistochemistry and quantum dot-based multiplexed imaging to reveal type IV collagen, LOX and tumor angiogenesis. RESULTS Type IV collagen degradation and repatterning in the extracellular matrix (ECM) was a continuous process, making the ECM harder, although more fragile and less resistant to cancer invasion. The distribution of LOX among cancer nests was heterogeneous, with higher expression in small cancer nests and lower expression in large cancer nests. LOX expression in cancer cells was associated with rigid stroma and tumor angiogenesis. Tumor angiogenesis occurred with type IV collagen presence. At the cancer invasion front, the ECM was hydrolyzed, with the prominent linear reorientation of type IV collagen surrounding cancer nests adjacent to neovessels. CONCLUSION The visualization of the temporal-spatial relationship between type IV collagen, LOX and tumor angiogenesis revealed the coevolution process of HCC cells and their microenvironment, emphasizing an active role of the ECM during cancer invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Fang
- Department of Oncology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University & Hubei Key Laboratory of Tumor Biological Behaviors & Hubei Cancer Clinical Study Center, Number 169 Donghu Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan, 430071, PR China
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Ji F, Wang Y, Qiu L, Li S, Zhu J, Liang Z, Wan Y, Di W. Hypoxia inducible factor 1α-mediated LOX expression correlates with migration and invasion in epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Oncol 2013; 42:1578-88. [PMID: 23545606 PMCID: PMC3661201 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2013.1878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the role of LOX in promoting invasion and metastasis of epithelial ovarian cancer in a hypoxic environment and its specific signal transduction pathway. Immunohistochemical detection of HIF-1α and LOX protein expression was performed on formalin-fixed paraffin sections of normal ovary, benign ovarian tumors, borderline and malignant epithelial ovarian tumor paraffin sample, using Mann-Whitney U test for independent comparisons and Wilcoxon signed-ranks test for paired comparisons. HIF-1α and LOX were knocked down in epithelial ovarian cancer cells (EOC), and HIF-1α/LOX regulation mechanism and LOX catalytic activity under hypoxia/reoxygenation microenvironment were explored. Cell migration and invasion ability in LOX inhibited HO8910 cells were investigated under hypoxia/reoxygenation conditions, using matrigel cell invasion and migration assays. We found that HIF-1α and LOX are highly expressed in epithelial ovarian cancer tissues, and the expression of both proteins is significantly correlated with the tumor grade, tumor diameter and lymph node metastasis. HIF-1α expression is positively correlated with the expression of LOX. Specifically, the expression of LOX and HIF-1α markedly increases under hypoxic conditions and decreases after reoxygenation. siRNA knockdown of LOX or β-aminoproprionitrile (βAPN), an inhibitor of LOX activity, that attenuates LOX activity, downregulates HIF-1α protein expression and inhibits HO8910 migratory and invasive abilities. LOX catalytic activity is significantly reduced under hypoxic conditions. Moreover, EOC cells display a marked increase in LOX-dependent FAK/AKT activation and cell migration following hypoxia/reoxygenation. Collectively, our study demonstrates that the hypoxia-HIF-1α, LOX-FAK/AKT pathway regulates the migration and invasion of epithelial ovarian cancer cells under hypoxia/reoxygenation conditions, thus, promoting metastasis of ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Ji
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, PR China
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Wei L, Song XR, Sun JJ, Wang XW, Xie L, Lv LY. Lysyl oxidase may play a critical role in hypoxia-induced NSCLC cells invasion and migration. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2012; 27:672-7. [PMID: 23140307 DOI: 10.1089/cbr.2012.1241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX), a copper-dependent amine oxidase known to function both intracellularly and extracellularly, is implicated in promoting tumor progression and hypoxic metastasis in certain malignancies. Nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a highly aggressive cancer with poor prognosis worldwide. However, the role and molecular mechanism by which LOX involving in hypoxic NSCLC invasion and migration are poorly understood. This study explores the effect of LOX on invasion and migration of NSCLC cells under hypoxic conditions. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting LOX was used to silence LOX expression of hypoxic NSCLC cells, SPCA1 and A549. Cellular invasive and migratory potentials were determined by matrigel invasion and migration assays. Expression of LOX, Src, Src activation (Tyr418 phosphorylation of Src), and Snail were evaluated by real-time PCR and western blot, respectively. The results showed that LOX mRNA and protein expression were upregulated under hypoxic conditions in NSCLC cells. Knockdown of LOX led to inhibition of hypoxia-induced invasion and migration. Phosphorylated Src (Tyr418) and Snail proteins were decreased along with LOX downregulation. Our data provide molecular evidences that LOX is mechanistically linked to increased invasion and migration of hypoxic NSCLC cells, and may serve as an antimetastasis target of human NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Wei
- 1 Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology , Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Jinan, The People's Republic of China
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9
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Lysyl oxidase, extracellular matrix remodeling and cancer metastasis. CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT 2012; 5:261-73. [PMID: 22528876 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-012-0105-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) family oxidases, LOX and LOXL1-4, oxidize lysine residues in collagens and elastin, resulting in the covalent crosslinking and stabilization of these extracellular matrix (ECM) structural components, thus provide collagen and elastic fibers much of their tensile strength and structural integrity. Abnormality in LOX expression and/or activity results in connective tissue disorders and fibrotic diseases. Despite LOX family oxidases have been reported to function as tumor suppressors, recent studies have highlighted the roles of LOX family oxidases in promoting cancer metastasis. LOX family oxidases are highly expressed in invasive tumors, and are closely associated with metastasis and poor patient outcome. Consistent to their roles in connective tissue homeostasis, LOX family oxidases expedite tumorigenesis and metastasis through active remodeling of tumor microenvironment. LOX family oxidases are also actively involved in the process of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an event critical in cancer cell invasion and metastasis. In this review, we will summarize the recent progress on LOX family oxidases, with much of the focus on the roles and mechanism of LOX in tumor progression and metastasis.
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Shih YH, Chang KW, Chen MY, Yu CC, Lin DJ, Hsia SM, Huang HL, Shieh TM. Lysyl oxidase and enhancement of cell proliferation and angiogenesis in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck 2012; 35:250-6. [PMID: 22367676 DOI: 10.1002/hed.22959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is a copper-dependent enzyme that cross-links collagen and elastin in the extracellular matrix. LOX overexpressed in various tumors. The manner in which LOX affects tumor growth remains controversial. METHODS Chemical treatment and gene transfection were used to induce LOX overexpression or inhibition in cell lines SAS and SVEC4-10. LOX mRNA, protein, and activity were confirmed before tube formation assay and tumorigenesis. The microvessels in the tumor section were detected by immunostaining CD31-positive endothelial cells. RESULTS LOX overexpression and copper induction of LOX activity increased SVEC4-10 tube formation. LOX silencing and β-aminopropionitrile inhibition of LOX activity had opposite effects. LOX overexpression increased proliferation and proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression. High LOX expression clones increased tumor size in a tumorigenesis model. The microvascular numbers were higher in LOX overexpression tumors than in control tumors. CONCLUSION LOX can induce cell proliferation and angiogenesis in oral squamous cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Hua Shih
- Institute of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Wu ZS, Yang K, Wan Y, Qian PX, Perry JK, Chiesa J, Mertani HC, Zhu T, Lobie PE. Tumor expression of human growth hormone and human prolactin predict a worse survival outcome in patients with mammary or endometrial carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:E1619-29. [PMID: 21849525 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2011-1245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Evidence suggests that human GH (hGH) and human prolactin (hPRL) possess an autocrine or paracrine oncogenic role in mammary and endometrial carcinoma. However, especially for hGH, the prognostic relevance of tumor expression of these hormones is not well defined. OBJECTIVE We investigated the potential association of tumor mRNA and protein expression of hGH and hPRL with the clinicopathological features of mammary and endometrial carcinoma. The prognostic relevance of the individual or combined expression of hGH and hPRL in mammary and endometrial carcinoma was also determined. DESIGN The expression of hGH and hPRL was analyzed in histopathological samples of mammary and endometrial carcinoma, and the respective normal tissues, by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analysis was performed to examine the association of tumor hGH and hPRL expression with relapse-free survival and overall survival of patients. RESULTS hGH expression was significantly associated with lymph node metastasis, tumor stage, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 status, and proliferative index in mammary carcinoma and with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics grade, myometrial invasion, and ovarian metastases in endometrial carcinoma. hPRL expression was associated with lymph node metastasis, tumor grade, and tumor stage in mammary carcinoma and with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage and myometrial invasion in endometrial carcinoma. Both hGH and hPRL expression, individually and combined, are associated with worse relapse-free survival and overall survival in patients with mammary or endometrial carcinoma. CONCLUSION Tumor expression of both hGH or hPRL in mammary or endometrial carcinoma is associated with a large and significant difference in survival outcome for patients with these tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Sheng Wu
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230027, People’s Republic of China
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Pez F, Dayan F, Durivault J, Kaniewski B, Aimond G, Le Provost GS, Deux B, Clézardin P, Sommer P, Pouysségur J, Reynaud C. The HIF-1–Inducible Lysyl Oxidase Activates HIF-1 via the Akt Pathway in a Positive Regulation Loop and Synergizes with HIF-1 in Promoting Tumor Cell Growth. Cancer Res 2011; 71:1647-57. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-1516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Lysyl oxidase: a potential target for cancer therapy. Inflammopharmacology 2010; 19:117-29. [DOI: 10.1007/s10787-010-0073-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Jacobson EM, Hugo ER, Tuttle TR, Papoian R, Ben-Jonathan N. Unexploited therapies in breast and prostate cancer: blockade of the prolactin receptor. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2010; 21:691-8. [PMID: 20846877 PMCID: PMC2967606 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2010.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 08/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Breast and prostate cancers are hormone-sensitive malignancies that afflict millions of women and men. Although prolactin (PRL) is known as a survival factor that supports tumor growth and confers chemoresistance in both cancers, its precise role in these tumors has not been studied extensively. Growth hormone and placental lactogen also bind PRL receptor (PRLR) and mimic some of the actions of PRL. Blockade of the PRLR represents a novel treatment for patients with advanced breast or prostate cancer with limited therapeutic options. This review discusses different approaches for generating PRLR antagonists. Emphasis is placed on technological advances which enable high-throughput screening for small molecule inhibitors of PRLR signaling that could serve as oral medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M Jacobson
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0567, USA
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15
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Toxicogenomic analysis of N-nitrosomorpholine induced changes in rat liver: Comparison of genomic and proteomic responses and anchoring to histopathological parameters. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009; 241:230-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2009.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 08/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Hollosi P, Yakushiji JK, Fong KSK, Csiszar K, Fong SFT. Lysyl oxidase-like 2 promotes migration in noninvasive breast cancer cells but not in normal breast epithelial cells. Int J Cancer 2009; 125:318-27. [PMID: 19330836 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A growing number of studies indicate the importance of the lysyl oxidase family in the promotion of epithelial neoplasms towards their more aggressive forms. However, the role of individual family members in carcinoma progression has yet to be ascertained. In this study, we analyzed LOXL2 expression in malignantly transformed MCF-7 and normal MCF-10A mammary epithelial cell line clones stably transduced with LOXL2 in vitro, and in normal and cancerous breast tissue samples in vivo. We found LOXL2 to be catalytically active in both MCF-7 and MCF-10 clones. LOXL2 overexpression promoted a more mesenchymal morphology in both cell types, but LOXL2-induced increase in migratory ability could only be established in MCF-7 clones. We demonstrated altered localization of the LOXL2 protein in breast cancer tissue compared to normal mammary tissue, and altered localization and processing of LOXL2 protein in breast cancer cell lines compared to normal cell lines, which may allow LOXL2 to interact with different intra and extracellular components during tumor progression. Results support the role of LOXL2 in selectively promoting a metastatic phenotype in breast tumor cells. Additional data suggest epigenetic molecular mechanisms in tumor specific regulation of LOXL2 expression that could be explored as a molecular target in the prevention of breast cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Hollosi
- Cardiovascular Research Center, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
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Postovit LM, Abbott DE, Payne SL, Wheaton WW, Margaryan NV, Sullivan R, Jansen MK, Csiszar K, Hendrix MJC, Kirschmann DA. Hypoxia/reoxygenation: a dynamic regulator of lysyl oxidase-facilitated breast cancer migration. J Cell Biochem 2008; 103:1369-78. [PMID: 17685448 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.21517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Fluctuating oxygen levels characterize the microenvironment of many cancers and tumor hypoxia is associated with increased invasion and metastatic potential concomitant with a poor prognosis. Similarly, the expression of lysyl oxidase (LOX) in breast cancer facilitates tumor cell migration and is associated with estrogen receptor negative status and reduced patient survival. Here we demonstrate that hypoxia/reoxygenation drives poorly invasive breast cancer cells toward a more aggressive phenotype by up-regulating LOX expression and catalytic activity. Specifically, hypoxia markedly increased LOX protein expression; however, catalytic activity (beta-aminopropionitrile inhibitable hydrogen peroxide production) was significantly reduced under hypoxic conditions. Moreover, poorly invasive breast cancer cells displayed a marked increase in LOX-dependent FAK/Src activation and cell migration following hypoxia/reoxygenation, but not in response to hypoxia alone. Furthermore, LOX expression is only partially dependent on hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1alpha) in poorly invasive breast cancer cells, as hypoxia mimetics and overexpression of HIF-1alpha could not up-regulate LOX expression to the levels observed under hypoxia. Clinically, LOX expression positively correlates with tumor progression and co-localization with hypoxic regions (defined by HIF-1alpha expression) in ductal carcinoma in situ and invasive ductal carcinoma primary tumors. However, positive correlation is lost in metastatic tumors, suggesting that LOX expression is independent of a hypoxic environment at later stages of tumor progression. This work demonstrates that both hypoxia and reoxygenation are necessary for LOX catalytic activity which facilitates breast cancer cell migration through a hydrogen peroxide-mediated mechanism; thereby illuminating a potentially novel mechanism by which poorly invasive cancer cells can obtain metastatic competency.
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MESH Headings
- Breast Neoplasms/enzymology
- Breast Neoplasms/genetics
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/enzymology
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/genetics
- Carcinoma, Ductal, Breast/pathology
- Cell Hypoxia
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Movement
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Humans
- Hydrogen Peroxide/metabolism
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit/genetics
- Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1, alpha Subunit/metabolism
- Neoplasm Invasiveness
- Neoplasm Metastasis
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/biosynthesis
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynne-Marie Postovit
- Children's Memorial Research Center, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Feinberg School of Medicine at Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60614, USA
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18
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Lelièvre E, Hinek A, Lupu F, Buquet C, Soncin F, Mattot V. VE-statin/egfl7 regulates vascular elastogenesis by interacting with lysyl oxidases. EMBO J 2008; 27:1658-70. [PMID: 18497746 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2008.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2008] [Accepted: 04/28/2008] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously characterized VE-statin/egfl7, a protein that is exclusively secreted by endothelial cells and modulates smooth muscle cell migration. Here, we show that VE-statin/egfl7 is the first known natural negative regulator of vascular elastogenesis. Transgenic mice, expressing VE-statin/egfl7 under the control of keratin-14 promoter, showed an accumulation of VE-statin/egfl7 in arterial walls where its presence correlated with an impaired organization of elastic fibres. In vitro, fibroblasts cultured in the presence of VE-statin/egfl7 were unable to deposit elastic fibres due to a deficient conversion of soluble tropoelastin into insoluble mature elastin. VE-statin/egfl7 interacts with the catalytic domain of lysyl oxidase (LOX) enzymes and, in endothelial cells, endogenous VE-statin/egfl7 colocalizes with LoxL2 and inhibits elastic fibre deposition. In contrast, mature elastic fibres are abundantly deposited by endothelial cells that are prevented from producing endogenous VE-statin/egfl7. We propose a model where VE-statin/egfl7 produced by endothelial cells binds to the catalytic domains of enzymes of the LOX family in the vascular wall, thereby preventing the crosslink of tropoelastin molecules into mature elastin polymers and regulating vascular elastogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Lelièvre
- CNRS, UMR 8161, Institut de Biologie de Lille, Equipe labellisée La Ligue 2005, Université de Lille I, Université de Lille II, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
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19
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Harvey PW, Everett DJ, Springall CJ. Adverse effects of prolactin in rodents and humans: breast and prostate cancer. J Psychopharmacol 2008; 22:20-7. [PMID: 18709700 DOI: 10.1177/0269881107082624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Drugs and chemicals shown to induce mammary carcinogenesis in the rat/rodent via prolactin excess have traditionally been argued to pose little or no risk to humans in a regulatory toxicology context. The basis for this assumption is reviewed and placed into context with new evidence in humans that prolactin may be a tumour promoter in the breast and prostate. This evidence includes epidemiology, patient studies involving endocrine evaluation and molecular biology in human cells. It is concluded that hyperprolactinaemia is associated with an increase in breast cancer risk in both post and premenopausal women, that rat carcinogenicity studies are predictive of the human response, and that in a regulatory toxicology context prolactin-induced mammary tumours from nongenotoxic drugs and chemicals are an adverse effect that should not be ignored. More evidence is required concerning prostate cancer risk but molecular biology indicates that prolactin also induces prostate cell proliferation and inhibits apoptosis, which are similar to the responses observed in breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip W Harvey
- Department of Toxicology, Covance Laboratories Ltd., Otley Road, Harrogate, North Yorkshire, UK.
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Shieh TM, Lin SC, Liu CJ, Chang SS, Ku TH, Chang KW. Association of expression aberrances and genetic polymorphisms of lysyl oxidase with areca-associated oral tumorigenesis. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:4378-85. [PMID: 17671119 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-06-2685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Areca nut use is the major cause of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) in Southern Asians. Areca nut contains a high level of free copper ions. Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is a copper-activated enzyme critical for extracellular matrix organization. Contradictory evidence has been put forward to suggest that LOX may be either an oncogenic or a suppressive element. This study investigated the oncogenic significance of LOX in areca-associated OSCC. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The expression assays and polymorphism analysis were done to know the clinicopathologic implications of LOX status in OSCC. Knockdown and overexpression experiments were conducted to know the phenotypic effects of LOX on OSCC cells. RESULTS Up-regulation of LOX mRNA and LOX protein expression in OSCCs relative to adjacent oral mucosa was found. Precancerous lesions had the highest LOX mRNA expression. Areca nut extract up-regulated LOX expression in oral epithelial cells. Knockdown of LOX induced cellular migration and invasion, but it reduced the anchorage-independent growth and xenographic tumorigenesis of OSCC cells. The reduction of migration and invasion by LOX overexpression was partially rescued by blockage of LOX activity. The Arg158Gln polymorphism was associated with earlier clinical stage of OSCC. Wild-type LOX overexpression induced anchorage-independent growth in OSCC cells, but this was not for LOXArg158Gln overexpression. CONCLUSION LOX exerts oncogenic roles in areca-associated OSCC. This potential could be affected by the existence of LOX propeptide domain or genetic polymorphism.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Animals
- Areca/chemistry
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/chemically induced
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/enzymology
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/prevention & control
- Cell Movement
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Humans
- Keratinocytes/cytology
- Keratinocytes/drug effects
- Keratinocytes/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Nude
- Middle Aged
- Mouth Mucosa/drug effects
- Mouth Mucosa/metabolism
- Mouth Neoplasms/chemically induced
- Mouth Neoplasms/enzymology
- Mouth Neoplasms/genetics
- Mouth Neoplasms/prevention & control
- Neoplasm Invasiveness/pathology
- Plant Extracts/toxicity
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/antagonists & inhibitors
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/genetics
- Protein-Lysine 6-Oxidase/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Small Interfering/pharmacology
- Tissue Array Analysis
- Transplantation, Heterologous
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzong-Ming Shieh
- Institute of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
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21
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Payne SL, Hendrix MJC, Kirschmann DA. Paradoxical roles for lysyl oxidases in cancer—A prospect. J Cell Biochem 2007; 101:1338-54. [PMID: 17471532 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.21371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is an extracellular matrix (ECM) enzyme that catalyzes the cross-linking of collagens or elastin in the extracellular compartment, thereby regulating the tensile strength of tissues. However, recent reports have demonstrated novel roles for LOX, including the ability to regulate gene transcription, motility/migration, and cell adhesion. These diverse functions have led researchers to hypothesize that LOX may have multiple roles affecting both extra- and intracellular cell function(s). Particularly noteworthy is aberrant LOX expression and activity that have been observed in various cancerous tissues and neoplastic cell lines. Both down and upregulation of LOX in tumor tissues and cancer cell lines have been described, suggesting a dual role for LOX as a tumor suppressor, as well as a metastasis promoter gene--creating a conundrum within the LOX research field. Here, we review the body of evidence on LOX gene expression, regulation, and function(s) in various cancer cell types and tissues, as well as stromal-tumor cell interactions. Lastly, we will examine putative mechanisms in which LOX facilitates breast cancer invasion and metastasis. Taken together, the literature demonstrates the increasingly important role(s) that LOX may play in regulating tumor progression and the necessity to elucidate its myriad mechanisms of action in order to identify potentially novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey L Payne
- Children's Memorial Research Center, Division of Cancer Biology and Epigenomics, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Feinberg School of Medicine at Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60614, USA
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