Autoinhibition and autoactivation of the DNA replication checkpoint kinase Cds1

A missense mutation in the suc22 gene encoding the small subunit of ribonucleotide reductase significantly sensitizes fission yeast to chronic treatment with hydroxyurea

Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) is essential for the biosynthesis of dNTPs and a therapeutic target. We have identified a missense mutation in suc22 , which encodes the small subunit of RNR in fission yeast. The suc22-S239F mutation significantly sensitizes the cells to chronic but not acute treatment with the RNR inhibitor hydroxyurea. Preliminary data indicate that the drug sensitivity is likely due to decreased RNR activity. Since S239F is the first missense mutation reported for suc22 and the mutated residue is highly conserved, the results will be useful for future yeast genetic studies and potentially, the development of new therapeutics targeting RNR.

Comprehensive mutational analysis of the checkpoint signaling function of Rpa1/Ssb1 in fission yeast

Replication protein A (RPA) is a heterotrimeric complex and the major single-strand DNA (ssDNA) binding protein in eukaryotes. It plays important roles in DNA replication, repair, recombination, telomere maintenance, and checkpoint signaling. Because RPA is essential for cell survival, understanding its checkpoint signaling function in cells has been challenging. Several RPA mutants have been reported previously in fission yeast. None of them, however, has a defined checkpoint defect. A separation-of-function mutant of RPA, if identified, would provide significant insights into the checkpoint initiation mechanisms. We have explored this possibility and carried out an extensive genetic screen for Rpa1/Ssb1, the large subunit of RPA in fission yeast, looking for mutants with defects in checkpoint signaling. This screen has identified twenty-five primary mutants that are sensitive to genotoxins. Among these mutants, two have been confirmed partially defective in checkpoint signaling primarily at the replication fork, not the DNA damage site. The remaining mutants are likely defective in other functions such as DNA repair or telomere maintenance. Our screened mutants, therefore, provide a valuable tool for future dissection of the multiple functions of RPA in fission yeast.

Comprehensive mutational analysis of the checkpoint signaling function of Rpa1/Ssb1 in fission yeast

Replication protein A (RPA) is a heterotrimeric complex and the major single-strand DNA (ssDNA) binding protein in eukaryotes. It plays important roles in DNA replication, repair, recombination, telomere maintenance, and checkpoint signaling. Because RPA is essential for cell survival, understanding its checkpoint signaling function in cells has been challenging. Several RPA mutants have been reported previously in fission yeast. None of them, however, has a defined checkpoint defect. A separation-of-function mutant of RPA, if identified, would provide significant insights into the checkpoint initiation mechanisms. We have explored this possibility and carried out an extensive genetic screening for Rpa1/Ssb1, the large subunit of RPA in fission yeast, looking for mutants with defects in checkpoint signaling. This screen has identified twenty-five primary mutants that are sensitive to genotoxins. Among these mutants, two have been confirmed partially defective in checkpoint signaling primarily at the replication fork, not the DNA damage site. The remaining mutants are likely defective in other functions such as DNA repair or telomere maintenance. Our screened mutants, therefore, provide a valuable tool for future dissection of the multiple functions of RPA in fission yeast.

AUTHOR SUMMARY

Originally discovered as a protein required for replication of simian virus SV40 DNA, replication protein A is now known to function in DNA replication, repair, recombination, telomere maintenance, and checkpoint signaling in all eukaryotes. The protein is a complex of three subunits and the two larger ones are essential for cell growth. This essential function however complicates the studies in living cells, and for this reason, its checkpoint function remains to be fully understood. We have carried out an genetic screening of the largest subunit of this protein in fission yeast, aiming to find a non-lethal mutant that lacks the checkpoint function. This extensive screen has uncovered two mutants with a partial defect in checkpoint signaling when DNA replication is arrested. Surprisingly, although the two mutants also have a defect in DNA repair, their checkpoint signaling remains largely functional in the presence of DNA damage. We have also uncovered twenty-three mutants with defects in DNA repair or telomere maintenance, but not checkpoint signaling. Therefore, the non-lethal mutants uncovered by this study provide a valuable tool for dissecting the multiple functions of this biologically important protein in fission yeast.

Smc5/6 Complex Promotes Rad3ATR Checkpoint Signaling at the Perturbed Replication Fork through Sumoylation of the RecQ Helicase Rqh1

Smc5/6, like cohesin and condensin, is a structural maintenance of chromosomes complex crucial for genome stability. Unlike cohesin and condensin, Smc5/6 carries an essential Nse2 subunit with SUMO E3 ligase activity. While screening for new DNA replication checkpoint mutants in fission yeast, we have identified two previously uncharacterized mutants in Smc5/6. Characterization of the mutants and a series of previously reported Smc5/6 mutants uncovered that sumoylation of the RecQ helicase Rqh1 by Nse2 facilitates the checkpoint signaling at the replication fork. We found that mutations that eliminate the sumoylation sites or the helicase activity of Rqh1 compromised the checkpoint signaling similar to a nse2 mutant lacking the ligase activity. Surprisingly, introducing a sumoylation site mutation to a helicase-inactive rqh1 mutant promoted cell survival under stress. These findings, together with other genetic data, support a mechanism that sumoylation of Rqh1 by Smc5/6-Nse2 recruits Rqh1 or modulates its helicase activity at the fork to facilitate the checkpoint signaling. Since the Smc5/6 complex, Rqh1, and the replication checkpoint are conserved in eukaryotes, a similar checkpoint mechanism may be operating in human cells.

Replication stress induced by the ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor guanazole, triapine and gemcitabine in fission yeast

Schizosaccharomyces pombe is an established yeast model for studying the cellular mechanisms conserved in humans, such as the DNA replication checkpoint. The replication checkpoint deals with replication stress caused by numerous endogenous and exogenous factors that perturb fork movement. If undealt with, perturbed forks collapse, causing chromosomal DNA damage or cell death. Hydroxyurea (HU) is an inhibitor of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) commonly used in checkpoint studies. It produces replication stress by depleting dNTPs, which slows the movement of ongoing forks and thus activates the replication checkpoint. However, HU also causes side effects such as oxidative stress, particularly under chronic exposure conditions, which complicates the studies. To find a drug that generates replication stress more specifically, we tested three other RNR inhibitors gemcitabine, guanazole and triapine in S. pombe under various experimental conditions. Our results show that guanazole and triapine can produce replication stress more specifically than HU under chronic, not acute drug treatment conditions. Therefore, using the two drugs in spot assay, the method commonly used for testing drug sensitivity in yeasts, should benefit the checkpoint studies in S. pombe and likely the research in other model systems.

Detecting Cell Cycle Stage and Progression in Fission Yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe

We have previously described methods to synchronize cultures of fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. In this chapter, we provide methods to detect cell cycle stage in cells and populations of S. pombe. These protocols used fixed samples. First, we describe sample preparation for flow cytometry of bulk DNA content. This technique allows users to monitor progression of DNA replication and detect any perturbation during the synthesis (S) phase of the cell cycle. Second, we describe methods to stain nuclei and septa of fixed yeast cells, and monitor proportions of cell cycle stages within cultures. Together, these methods provide the ability to compare cell cycle progression or delay between cultures, making use of the powerful molecular genetics tool that is S. pombe.

RecQ DNA Helicase Rqh1 Promotes Rad3ATR Kinase Signaling in the DNA Replication Checkpoint Pathway of Fission Yeast

Rad3 is the orthologue of ATR and the sensor kinase of the DNA replication checkpoint in Schizosaccharomyces pombe Under replication stress, it initiates checkpoint signaling at the forks necessary for maintaining genome stability and cell survival. To better understand the checkpoint initiation process, we have carried out a genetic screen in fission yeast by random mutation of the genome, looking for mutants defective in response to the replication stress induced by hydroxyurea. In addition to the previously reported mutant with a C-to-Y change at position 307 encoded by tel2 (tel2-C307Y mutant) (Y.-J. Xu, S. Khan, A. C. Didier, M. Wozniak, et al., Mol Cell Biol 39:e00175-19, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.00175-19), this screen has identified six mutations in rqh1 encoding a RecQ DNA helicase. Surprisingly, these rqh1 mutations, except for a start codon mutation, are all in the helicase domain, indicating that the helicase activity of Rqh1 plays an important role in the replication checkpoint. In support of this notion, integration of two helicase-inactive mutations or deletion of rqh1 generated a similar Rad3 signaling defect, and heterologous expression of human RECQ1, BLM, and RECQ4 restored the Rad3 signaling and partially rescued a rqh1 helicase mutant. Therefore, the replication checkpoint function of Rqh1 is highly conserved, and mutations in the helicase domain of these human enzymes may cause the checkpoint defect and contribute to the cancer predisposition syndromes.

A tel2 Mutation That Destabilizes the Tel2-Tti1-Tti2 Complex Eliminates Rad3ATR Kinase Signaling in the DNA Replication Checkpoint and Leads to Telomere Shortening in Fission Yeast

In response to perturbed DNA replication, ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related) kinase is activated to initiate the checkpoint signaling necessary for maintaining genome integrity and cell survival. To better understand the signaling mechanism, we carried out a large-scale genetic screen in fission yeast looking for mutants with enhanced sensitivity to hydroxyurea. From a collection of ∼370 primary mutants, we found a few mutants in which Rad3 (ATR ortholog)-mediated phospho-signaling was significantly compromised. One such mutant carried an uncharacterized mutation in tel2, a gene encoding an essential and highly conserved eukaryotic protein. Previous studies in various biological models have shown that Tel2 mainly functions in Tel2-Tti1-Tti2 (TTT) complex that regulates the steady-state levels of all phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like protein kinases, including ATR. We show here that although the levels of Rad3 and Rad3-mediated phospho-signaling in DNA damage checkpoint were moderately reduced in the tel2 mutant, the phospho-signaling in the DNA replication checkpoint was almost completely eliminated. In addition, the tel2 mutation caused telomere shortening. Since the interactions of Tel2 with Tti1 and Tti2 were significantly weakened by the mutation, destabilization of the TTT complex likely contributes to the observed checkpoint and telomere defects.

Heme deficiency sensitizes yeast cells to oxidative stress induced by hydroxyurea

Hydroxyurea (HU) has a long history of clinical and scientific use as an antiviral, antibacterial, and antitumor agent. It inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and reversibly arrests cells in S phase. However, high concentrations or prolonged treatment with low doses of HU can cause cell lethality. Although the cytotoxicity of HU may significantly contribute to its therapeutic effects, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. We have previously shown that HU can induce cytokinesis arrest in the erg11-1 mutant of fission yeast, which has a partial defect in the biosynthesis of fungal membrane sterol ergosterol. Here, we report the identification of a new mutant in heme biosynthesis, hem13-1, that is hypersensitive to HU. We found that the HU hypersensitivity of the hem13-1 mutant is caused by oxidative stress and not by replication stress or a defect in cellular response to replication stress. The mutation is hypomorphic and causes heme deficiency, which likely sensitizes the cells to the HU-induced oxidative stress. Because the heme biosynthesis pathway is highly conserved in eukaryotes, this finding, as we show in our separate report, may help to expand the therapeutic spectrum of HU to additional pathological conditions.

Hydroxyurea Induces Cytokinesis Arrest in Cells Expressing a Mutated Sterol-14α-Demethylase in the Ergosterol Biosynthesis Pathway

Hydroxyurea (HU) has been used for the treatment of multiple diseases, such as cancer. The therapeutic effect is generally believed to be due to the suppression of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), which slows DNA polymerase movement at replication forks and induces an S phase cell cycle arrest in proliferating cells. Although aberrant mitosis and DNA damage generated at collapsed forks are the likely causes of cell death in the mutants with defects in replication stress response, the mechanism underlying the cytotoxicity of HU in wild-type cells remains poorly understood. While screening for new fission yeast mutants that are sensitive to replication stress, we identified a novel mutation in the erg11 gene encoding the enzyme sterol-14α-demethylase in the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway that dramatically sensitizes the cells to chronic HU treatment. Surprisingly, HU mainly arrests the erg11 mutant cells in cytokinesis, not in S phase. Unlike the reversible S phase arrest in wild-type cells, the cytokinesis arrest induced by HU is relatively stable and occurs at low doses of the drug, which likely explains the remarkable sensitivity of the mutant to HU. We also show that the mutation causes sterol deficiency, which may predispose the cells to the cytokinesis arrest and lead to cell death. We hypothesize that in addition to the RNR, HU may have a secondary unknown target(s) inside cells. Identification of such a target(s) may greatly improve the chemotherapies that employ HU or help to expand the clinical usage of this drug for additional pathological conditions.

Inner nuclear membrane protein Lem2 facilitates Rad3-mediated checkpoint signaling under replication stress induced by nucleotide depletion in fission yeast

DNA replication checkpoint is a highly conserved cellular signaling pathway critical for maintaining genome integrity in eukaryotes. It is activated when DNA replication is perturbed. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, perturbed replication forks activate the sensor kinase Rad3 (ATR/Mec1), which works cooperatively with mediator Mrc1 and the 9-1-1 checkpoint clamp to phosphorylate the effector kinase Cds1 (CHK2/Rad53). Phosphorylation of Cds1 promotes autoactivation of the kinase. Activated Cds1 diffuses away from the forks and stimulates most of the checkpoint responses under replication stress. Although this signaling pathway has been well understood in fission yeast, how the signaling is initiated and thus regulated remains incompletely understood. Previous studies have shown that deletion of lem2(+) sensitizes cells to the inhibitor of ribonucleotide reductase, hydroxyurea. However, the underlying mechanism is still not well understood. This study shows that in the presence of hydroxyurea, Lem2 facilitates Rad3-mediated checkpoint signaling for Cds1 activation. Without Lem2, all known Rad3-dependent phosphorylations critical for replication checkpoint signaling are seriously compromised, which likely causes the aberrant mitosis and drug sensitivity observed in this mutant. Interestingly, the mutant is not very sensitive to DNA damage and the DNA damage checkpoint remains largely intact, suggesting that the main function of Lem2 is to facilitate checkpoint signaling in response to replication stress. Since Lem2 is an inner nuclear membrane protein, these results also suggest that the replication checkpoint may be spatially regulated inside the nucleus, a previously unknown mechanism.

Rad4 mainly functions in Chk1-mediated DNA damage checkpoint pathway as a scaffold protein in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Rad4/Cut5 is a scaffold protein in the Chk1-mediated DNA damage checkpoint in S. pombe. However, whether it contains a robust ATR-activation domain (AAD) required for checkpoint signaling like its orthologs TopBP1 in humans and Dpb11 in budding yeast has been incompletely clear. To identify the putative AAD in Rad4, we carried out an extensive genetic screen looking for novel mutants with an enhanced sensitivity to replication stress or DNA damage in which the function of the AAD can be eliminated by the mutations. Two new mutations near the N-terminus were identified that caused significantly higher sensitivities to DNA damage or chronic replication stress than all previously reported mutants, suggesting that most of the checkpoint function of the protein is eliminated. However, these mutations did not affect the activation of Rad3 (ATR in humans) yet eliminated the scaffolding function of the protein required for the activation of Chk1. Several mutations were also identified in or near the recently reported AAD in the C-terminus of Rad4. However, all mutations in the C-terminus only slightly sensitized the cells to DNA damage. Interestingly, a mutant lacking the whole C-terminus was found resistant to DNA damage and replication stress almost like the wild type cells. Consistent with the resistance, all known Rad3 dependent phosphorylations of checkpoint proteins remained intact in the C-terminal deletion mutant, indicating that unlike that in Dpb11, the C-terminus of Rad4 does not contain a robust AAD. These results, together with those from the biochemical studies, show that Rad4 mainly functions as a scaffold protein in the Chk1, not the Cds1(CHK2 in humans), checkpoint pathway. It plays a minor role or is functionally redundant with an unknown factor in Rad3 activation.

The DNA damage and the DNA replication checkpoints converge at the MBF transcription factor

DNA damage and DNA replication checkpoints regulate differently the G1-to-S phase transcriptional program, resulting in the repression or induction, respectively, of the same set of genes. When this signaling is disrupted, cells are unable to cope with DNA-damaging agents, leading to increased cell lethality.

In fission yeast cells, Cds1 is the effector kinase of the DNA replication checkpoint. We previously showed that when the DNA replication checkpoint is activated, the repressor Yox1 is phosphorylated and inactivated by Cds1, resulting in activation of MluI-binding factor (MBF)–dependent transcription. This is essential to reinitiate DNA synthesis and for correct G1-to-S transition. Here we show that Cdc10, which is an essential part of the MBF core, is the target of the DNA damage checkpoint. When fission yeast cells are treated with DNA-damaging agents, Chk1 is activated and phosphorylates Cdc10 at its carboxy-terminal domain. This modification is responsible for the repression of MBF-dependent transcription through induced release of MBF from chromatin. This inactivation of MBF is important for survival of cells challenged with DNA-damaging agents. Thus Yox1 and Cdc10 couple normal cell cycle regulation in unperturbed conditions and the DNA replication and DNA damage checkpoints into a single transcriptional complex.

Continued DNA synthesis in replication checkpoint mutants leads to fork collapse

Hydroxyurea (HU) treatment activates the intra-S phase checkpoint proteins Cds1 and Mrc1 to prevent replication fork collapse. We found that prolonged DNA synthesis occurs in cds1Δ and mrc1Δ checkpoint mutants in the presence of HU and continues after release. This is coincident with increased DNA damage measured by phosphorylated histone H2A in whole cells during release. High-resolution live-cell imaging shows that mutants first accumulate extensive replication protein A (RPA) foci, followed by increased Rad52. Both DNA synthesis and RPA accumulation require the MCM helicase. We propose that a replication fork "collapse point" in HU-treated cells describes the point at which accumulated DNA damage and instability at individual forks prevent further replication. After this point, cds1Δ and mrc1Δ forks cannot complete genome replication. These observations establish replication fork collapse as a dynamic process that continues after release from HU block.

The phosphorylation network for efficient activation of the DNA replication checkpoint in fission yeast

Protein phosphorylation is the hallmark of checkpoint activation. Hundreds of targets of checkpoint kinases have been identified recently by genome-wide investigations. However, the complete picture of a phosphorylation network required for activation of a checkpoint pathway has not been available. The DNA replication checkpoint in Schizosaccharomyces pombe contains two major protein kinases, the sensor kinase Rad3 and the effector kinase Cds1, with the latter mediating most of the checkpoint functions. We show here that when DNA replication is arrested, efficient activation of Cds1 requires five phosphorylations that cooperate in a parallel or a sequential manner. Phosphorylation of a threonine residue (Thr(11)) in Cds1 by Rad3 occurs at a basal level in the absence of three other parallel Rad3-dependent phosphorylations on the mediator Mrc1 and Rad9 in the checkpoint clamp complex. However, the three parallel Rad3-dependent phosphorylations are all required for efficient phosphorylation of Thr(11) in Cds1 by Rad3. Phosphorylation of Thr(11) has been shown previously to promote autophosphorylation of Thr(328) in the kinase domain of Cds1, which directly activates the enzyme, leading to full activation of the checkpoint pathway. Interestingly, phosphorylation of Mrc1 by Rad3 does not require the phosphorylation of Rad9, suggesting that activation of the sensor kinase Rad3 in the replication checkpoint of fission yeast may involve a different mechanism.

Multiple functions of the S-phase checkpoint mediator

There is mounting evidence that replication defects are the major source of spontaneous genomic instability in cells, and that S-phase checkpoints are the principal defense against such instability. The S-phase checkpoint mediator protein Mrc1/Claspin mediates the checkpoint response to replication stress by facilitating phosphorylation of effector kinase by a sensor kinase. In this review, the multiple functions and the regulation of the S-phase checkpoint mediator are discussed.

Yox1 links MBF-dependent transcription to completion of DNA synthesis

When DNA replication is challenged cells activate a DNA synthesis checkpoint, blocking cell cycle progression until they are able to overcome the replication defects. In fission yeast, Cds1 is the effector kinase of this checkpoint, inhibiting M-phase entry, stabilizing stalled replication forks and triggering transcriptional activation of S-phase genes. The molecular basis of this last effect is largely unknown. The Mlu1 binding factor (MBF) complex controls the transcription of S-phase genes. We purified novel interactors of the MBF complex and identified the repressor Yox1. When the DNA synthesis checkpoint is activated, Yox1 is phosphorylated, which abrogates its binding to MBF. MBF-dependent transcription therefore remains active until cells are able to overcome this challenge.

Hsk1 kinase and Cdc45 regulate replication stress-induced checkpoint responses in fission yeast

In fission yeast, replication fork arrest activates the replication checkpoint effector kinase Cds1(Chk2/Rad53) through the Rad3(ATR/Mec1)-Mrc1(Claspin) pathway. Hsk1, the Cdc7 homologue of fission yeast required for efficient initiation of DNA replication, is also required for Cds1 activation. Hsk1 kinase activity is required for induction and maintenance of Mrc1 hyperphosphorylation, which is induced by replication fork block and mediated by Rad3. Rad3 kinase activity does not change in an hsk1 temperature-sensitive mutant, and Hsk1 kinase activity is not affected by rad3 mutation. Hsk1 kinase vigorously phosphorylates Mrc1 in vitro, predominantly at non-SQ/TQ sites, but this phosphorylation does not seem to affect the Rad3 action on Mrc1. Interestingly, the replication stress-induced activation of Cds1 and hyperphosphorylation of Mrc1 is almost completely abrogated in an initiation-defective mutant of cdc45, but not in an mcm2 or polε mutant. The results suggest that Hsk1-mediated loading of Cdc45 onto replication origins may play important roles in replication stress-induced checkpoint.

Transcriptional co-activator LEDGF interacts with Cdc7-activator of S-phase kinase (ASK) and stimulates its enzymatic activity

Lens epithelium-derived growth factor (LEDGF) is an important co-factor of human immunodeficiency virus DNA integration; however, its cellular functions are poorly characterized. We now report identification of the Cdc7-activator of S-phase kinase (ASK) heterodimer as a novel interactor of LEDGF. Both kinase subunits co-immunoprecipitated with endogenous LEDGF from human cell extracts. Truncation analyses identified the integrase-binding domain of LEDGF as essential and minimally sufficient for the interaction with Cdc7-ASK. Reciprocally, the interaction required autophosphorylation of the kinase and the presence of 50 C-terminal residues of ASK. The kinase phosphorylated LEDGF in vitro, with Ser-206 being the major target, and LEDGF phosphorylated at this residue could be detected during S phase of the cell cycle. LEDGF potently stimulated the enzymatic activity of Cdc7-ASK, increasing phosphorylation of MCM2 in vitro by more than 10-fold. This enzymatic stimulation as well as phosphorylation of LEDGF depended on the protein-protein interaction. Intriguingly, removing the C-terminal region of ASK, involved in the interaction with LEDGF, resulted in a hyperactive kinase. Our results indicate that the interaction with LEDGF relieves autoinhibition of Cdc7-ASK kinase, imposed by the C terminus of ASK.

Nemo-like kinase is involved in NGF-induced neurite outgrowth via phosphorylating MAP1B and paxillin

Nerve growth factor (NGF) promotes neurite outgrowth through regulating cytoskeletal organization and cell adhesion. These activities are modulated by protein phosphorylation. Nemo-like kinase (NLK) is an evolutionarily conserved MAP kinase-like kinase that phosphorylates several transcription factors. Although NLK is known to be expressed at relatively high levels in the nervous system, its function is not well understood. We found that NGF promotes the translocation of NLK to PC12 cells' leading edges, and triggers NLK kinase activity in them. Activated NLK directly phosphorylates microtubule-associated protein-1B (MAP1B) and the focal adhesion adaptor protein, paxillin. Knockdown of NLK attenuates the phosphorylation of both paxillin and MAP1B and inhibits both the NGF-induced re-distribution of F-actin and neurite outgrowth. We also discovered that NLK is a LiCl-sensitive kinase. LiCl is known to block NGF-induced neurite outgrowth and the phosphorylation of MAP1B and paxillin in PC12 cells. Therefore, the effects of LiCl are mediated in part by blocking NLK activity. These results suggest that NLK controls the dynamics of the cytoskeleton downstream of NGF signaling.