1
|
Holic L. Common skin cancers and their association with other non-cutaneous primary malignancies: a review of the literature. Med Oncol 2024; 41:157. [PMID: 38758457 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-024-02385-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
It has long been recognized that a history of skin cancer puts one at risk for additional primary skin cancers. However, more variable data exists for the risk of developing a non-cutaneous primary cancer following a diagnosis of skin cancer. The data are most variable for Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC), the most common and least aggressive type of skin cancer. While early studies imply that BCC does not impart a larger risk of other primary non-cutaneous cancers, more recent studies with larger populations suggest otherwise. The cancers most significantly associated with BCC are lip, oropharyngeal, and salivary gland cancer. There is also burgeoning evidence to suggest a link between BCC and prostate, breast, and colorectal cancer, but more data are needed to draw a concrete conclusion. Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC), the second most common type of skin cancer, has a slightly more defined risk to other non-cutaneous primary malignancies. There is a notable link between SCC and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), possibly due to immunosuppression. There is also an increased risk of other cancers derived from squamous epithelium following SCC, including oropharyngeal, lip, and salivary gland cancer. Some studies also suggest an increased risk of respiratory tract cancer following SCC, possibly due to shared risk factors. Melanoma, a more severe type of skin cancer, shows a well-defined risk of additional primary non-cutaneous malignancies. The most significant of these risks include NHL, thyroid cancer, prostate cancer, and breast cancer along with a host of other cancers. Each of these three main skin cancer types has a profile of genetic mutations that have also been linked to non-cutaneous malignancies. In this review, we discuss a selection of these genes to highlight the complex interplay between different tumorigenesis processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Holic
- Chicago Medical School at Rosalind Franklin University, North Chicago, IL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li Y, Hirano S, Sato K, Osawa M, Nagaoka H. Assessing Interferon Regulatory Factor 4 Complex Formation: Differential Behavior of Homocomplexes Versus Heterocomplexes Induced by Mutations. Biochemistry 2024; 63:767-776. [PMID: 38439718 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.3c00512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) is a crucial transcription factor that plays a vital role in lymphocyte development, including in the fate-determining steps in terminal differentiation. It is also implicated in the development of lymphoid tumors such as multiple myeloma and adult T-cell leukemia. IRF4 can form a homodimer and multiple heterocomplexes with other transcription factors such as purine-rich box1 and activator protein 1. Each protein complex binds to specific DNA sequences to regulate a distinct set of genes. However, the precise relationship among these complex formations remains unclear. Herein, we investigated the abilities of IRF4 proteins with functional mutations in the IRF-association domain and autoinhibitory region to form complexes using luciferase reporter assays. The assays allowed us to selectively assess the activity of each complex. Our results revealed that certain IRF-association domain mutants, previously known to have impaired heterocomplex formation, maintained or even enhanced homodimer activity. This discrepancy suggests that the mutated amino acid residues selectively influence homodimer activity. Conversely, a phosphomimetic serine mutation in the autoinhibitory region displayed strong activating effects in all complexes. Furthermore, we observed that partner proteins involved in heterocomplex formation could disrupt the activity of the homodimer, suggesting a potential competition between homocomplexes and heterocomplexes. Our findings provide new insights into the mechanistic function of IRF4.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng Li
- Department of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
| | - Setoka Hirano
- Department of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
| | - Katsuya Sato
- Department of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
| | - Masatake Osawa
- Department of Regeneration and Applied Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Nagaoka
- Department of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
- Center for One Medicine Innovative Translational Research (COMIT), Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1194, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang Y, Cheng K, Choi J. TCR Pathway Mutations in Mature T Cell Lymphomas. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 211:1450-1458. [PMID: 37931208 PMCID: PMC10715708 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Mature T cell lymphomas are heterogeneous neoplasms that are aggressive and resistant to treatment. Many of these cancers retain immunological properties of their cell of origin. They express cytokines, cytotoxic enzymes, and cell surface ligands normally induced by TCR signaling in untransformed T cells. Until recently, their molecular mechanisms were unclear. Recently, high-dimensional studies have transformed our understanding of their cellular and genetic characteristics. Somatic mutations in the TCR signaling pathway drive lymphomagenesis by disrupting autoinhibitory domains, increasing affinity to ligands, and/or inducing TCR-independent signaling. Collectively, most of these mutations augment signaling pathways downstream of the TCR. Emerging data suggest that these mutations not only drive proliferation but also determine lymphoma immunophenotypes. For example, RHOA mutations are sufficient to induce disease-relevant CD4+ T follicular helper cell phenotypes. In this review, we describe how mutations in the TCR signaling pathway elucidate lymphoma pathophysiology but also provide insights into broader T cell biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kathleen Cheng
- Department of Dermatology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jaehyuk Choi
- Department of Dermatology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang G, Feng X, Ding J. Molecular basis for the functional roles of the multimorphic T95R mutation of IRF4 causing human autosomal dominant combined immunodeficiency. Structure 2023; 31:1441-1451.e3. [PMID: 37683642 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2023.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) is a transcription factor that regulates the development and function of immune cells. Recently, a new multimorphic mutation T95R was identified in the IRF4 DNA-binding domain (DBD) in patients with autosomal dominant combined immune deficiency. Here, we characterized the interactions of the wild-type IRF4-DBD (IRF4-DBDWT) and T95R mutant (IRF4-DBDT95R) with a canonical DNA sequence and several noncanonical DNA sequences. We found that compared to IRF4-DBDWT, IRF4-DBDT95R exhibits higher binding affinities for both canonical and noncanonical DNAs, with the highest preference for the noncanonical GATA sequence. The crystal structures of IRF4-DBDWT in complex with the GATA sequence and IRF4-DBDT95R in complexes with both canonical and noncanonical DNAs were determined, showing that the T95R mutation enhances the interactions of IRF4-DBDT95R with the canonical and noncanonical DNAs to achieve higher affinity and specificity. Collectively, our data provide the molecular basis for the gain-of-function and new function of IRF4T95R.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guanchao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-Yang Road, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xueqian Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-Yang Road, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Jianping Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-Yang Road, Shanghai 200031, China; School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, 393 Middle Huaxia Road, Shanghai 201210, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sakamoto H, Ando K, Imaizumi Y, Mishima H, Kinoshita A, Kobayashi Y, Kitanosono H, Kato T, Sawayama Y, Sato S, Hata T, Nakashima M, Yoshiura KI, Miyazaki Y. Alvocidib inhibits IRF4 expression via super-enhancer suppression and adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma cell growth. Cancer Sci 2022; 113:4092-4103. [PMID: 36047964 DOI: 10.1111/cas.15550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) is an intractable hematological malignancy with extremely poor prognosis. Recent studies have revealed that super-enhancers (SE) play important roles in controlling tumor-specific gene expression and are potential therapeutic targets for neoplastic diseases including ATL. Cyclin-dependent protein kinase (CDK) 9 is a component of a complex comprising transcription factors (TFs) that bind the SE region. Alvocidib is a CDK9 inhibitor that exerts antitumor activity by inhibiting RNA polymerase (Pol) II phosphorylation and suppressing SE-mediated, tumor-specific gene expression. The present study demonstrated that alvocidib inhibited the proliferation of ATL cell lines and tumor cells from patients with ATL. RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) and chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-Seq) disclosed that SE regulated IRF4 in the ATL cell lines. Previous studies showed that IRF4 suppression inhibited ATL cell proliferation. Hence, IRF4 is a putative alvocidib target in ATL therapy. The present study revealed that SE-mediated IRF4 downregulation is a possible mechanism by which alvocidib inhibits ATL proliferation. Alvocidib also suppressed ATL in a mouse xenograft model. Hence, the present work demonstrated that alvocidib has therapeutic efficacy against ATL and partially elucidated its mode of action. It also showed that alvocidib is promising for the clinical treatment of ATL and perhaps other malignancies and neoplasms as well.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hikaru Sakamoto
- Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan.,Department of Hematology, Nagasaki University Hospital, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Koji Ando
- Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Imaizumi
- Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Mishima
- Department of Human Genetics, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Akira Kinoshita
- Department of Human Genetics, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yuji Kobayashi
- Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Hideaki Kitanosono
- Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Takeharu Kato
- Department of Hematology, Nagasaki University Hospital, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yasushi Sawayama
- Department of Hematology, Nagasaki University Hospital, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Shinya Sato
- Department of Hematology, Nagasaki University Hospital, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Tomoko Hata
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Nagasaki Harbor Medical Center, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nakashima
- Department of Tumor and Diagnostic Pathology, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Koh-Ichiro Yoshiura
- Department of Human Genetics, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan.,Division of Advanced Preventive Medical Sciences and Leading Medical Research Core Unit, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yasushi Miyazaki
- Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan.,Department of Hematology, Nagasaki University Hospital, Nagasaki, Japan.,Department of Hematology, Atomic Bomb Disease and Hibakusha Medicine Unit, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
IRF4 as an Oncogenic Master Transcription Factor. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14174314. [PMID: 36077849 PMCID: PMC9454692 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14174314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Master transcription factors regulate essential developmental processes and cellular maintenance that characterize cell identity. Many of them also serve as oncogenes when aberrantly expressed or activated. IRF4 is one of prime examples of oncogenic master transcription factors that has been implicated in various mature lymphoid neoplasms. IRF4 forms unique regulatory circuits and induces oncogenic transcription programs through the interactions with upstream pathways and binding partners. Abstract IRF4 is a transcription factor in the interferon regulatory factor (IRF) family. Since the discovery of this gene, various research fields including immunology and oncology have highlighted the unique characteristics and the importance of IRF4 in several biological processes that distinguish it from other IRF family members. In normal lymphocyte development and immunity, IRF4 mediates critical immune responses via interactions with upstream signaling pathways, such as the T-cell receptor and B-cell receptor pathways, as well as their binding partners, which are uniquely expressed in each cell type. On the other hand, IRF4 acts as an oncogene in various mature lymphoid neoplasms when abnormally expressed. IRF4 induces several oncogenes, such as MYC, as well as genes that characterize each cell type by utilizing its ability as a master regulator of immunity. IRF4 and its upstream factor NF-κB form a transcriptional regulatory circuit, including feedback and feedforward loops, to maintain the oncogenic transcriptional program in malignant lymphoid cells. In this review article, we provide an overview of the molecular functions of IRF4 in mature lymphoid neoplasms and highlight its upstream and downstream pathways, as well as the regulatory circuits mediated by IRF4.
Collapse
|
7
|
Amanda S, Tan TK, Iida S, Sanda T. Lineage- and Stage-specific Oncogenicity of IRF4. Exp Hematol 2022; 114:9-17. [PMID: 35908629 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2022.07.300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Dysregulation of transcription factor genes represents a unique molecular etiology of hematological malignancies. A number of transcription factors that play a role in hematopoietic cell development, lymphocyte activation or their maintenance have been identified as oncogenes or tumor suppressors. Many of them exert oncogenic abilities in a context-dependent manner by governing the key transcriptional program unique to each cell type. IRF4, a member of the interferon regulatory factor (IRF) family, acts as an essential regulator of the immune system and is a prime example of a stage-specific oncogene. The expression and oncogenicity of IRF4 are restricted to mature lymphoid neoplasms, while IRF4 potentially serves as a tumor suppressor in other cellular contexts. This is in marked contrast to its immediate downstream target, MYC, which can cause cancers in a variety of tissues. In this review article, we provide an overview of the roles of IRF4 in the development of the normal immune system and lymphoid neoplasms and discuss the potential mechanisms of lineage- and stage-specific oncogenicity of IRF4.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stella Amanda
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Tze King Tan
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Shinsuke Iida
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Aichi, 467-8601 Japan
| | - Takaomi Sanda
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, 117599, Singapore; Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117599, Singapore..
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Harasgama JC, Kasthuriarachchi TDW, Sirisena DMKP, Kwon H, Lee S, Wan Q, Lee J. Modulation of fish immune response by interferon regulatory factor 4 in redlip mullet (Liza haematocheilus): Delineation through expression profiling, antiviral assay, and macrophage polarization analysis. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 130:104356. [PMID: 35065138 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2022.104356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) is a crucial member of IRF family, which acts as an imperative transcription factor in the development and maturation of multiple lineages of blood cells and also plays a pivotal role in host defense against microbial infections. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the detailed structural and functional aspects of a redlip mullet IRF4 homolog (LhIRF4). The LhIRF4 open reading frame consists of 1347 base pairs encoding 449 amino acids, with the DNA-binding domain sharing significant homology with that of other vertebrate IRF4 homologs. The highest transcription levels of LhIRF4 were observed in the mullet intestine and spleen under normal physiological conditions. Furthermore, a time-dependent upregulation of LhIRF4 transcription was observed in the spleen and head kidney tissues upon pathogenic challenges. When overexpressed in mullet cells, LhIRF4 was localized to the nucleus and significantly stimulated the transcription of several host antiviral genes. Moreover, the overexpression of LhIRF4 strongly inhibited the replication of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) in vitro. The function of LhIRF4 in regulation of macrophage M2 polarization has also been evidently demonstrated in RAW 264.7 cells. Taken together, our findings indicate the profound role of LhIRF4 in modulating immune responses against microbial infections in redlip mullet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J C Harasgama
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - T D W Kasthuriarachchi
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - D M K P Sirisena
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyukjae Kwon
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongdo Lee
- General Affairs Division, National Fishery Products Quality Management Service, Busan, 49111, Republic of Korea
| | - Qiang Wan
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jehee Lee
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Sundararaj S, Seneviratne S, Williams SJ, Enders A, Casarotto MG. The molecular basis for the development of Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma in patients with an IRF4 K59R mutation. Protein Sci 2021; 31:787-796. [PMID: 34913532 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) is an essential regulator in the development of many immune cells, including B and T cells and has been implicated directly in numerous haematological malignancies, including Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL). Recently, an activating mutation in the DNA binding domain of IRF4 (IRF4K59R ), was found as a recurrent somatic mutation in ATLL patients. However, it remains unknown how this mutation gives rise to the observed oncogenic effect. To understand the mode of IRF4K59R mediated gain of function in ATLL pathogenesis, we have determined the structural and affinity basis of IRF4K59R /DNA homodimer complex using X-ray crystallography and surface plasmon resonance. Our study shows that arginine substitution (R59) results in the reorientation of the side chain, enabling the guanidium group to interact with the phosphate backbone of the DNA helix. This markedly contrasts with the IRF4WT wherein the K59 interacts exclusively with DNA bases. Further, the arginine mutation causes enhanced DNA bending, enabling the IRF4K59R to interact more robustly with known DNA targets, as evidenced by increased binding affinity of the protein-DNA complex. Together, we demonstrate how key structural features underpin the basis for this activating mutation, thereby providing a molecular rationale for IRF4K59R -mediated ATLL development. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasan Sundararaj
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Sandali Seneviratne
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Simon J Williams
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Anselm Enders
- Department of Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.,Center for Personalised Immunology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Marco G Casarotto
- John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
In-depth cell-free DNA sequencing reveals genomic landscape of Hodgkin’s lymphoma and facilitates ultrasensitive residual disease detection. MED 2021; 2:1171-1193.e11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medj.2021.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
11
|
Jones CL, Degasperi A, Grandi V, Amarante TD, Mitchell TJ, Nik-Zainal S, Whittaker SJ. Spectrum of mutational signatures in T-cell lymphoma reveals a key role for UV radiation in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. Sci Rep 2021; 11:3962. [PMID: 33597573 PMCID: PMC7889847 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83352-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas develop following transformation of tissue resident T-cells. We performed a meta-analysis of whole exome sequencing data from 403 patients with eight subtypes of T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma to identify mutational signatures and associated recurrent gene mutations. Signature 1, indicative of age-related deamination, was prevalent across all T-cell lymphomas, reflecting the derivation of these malignancies from memory T-cells. Adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma was specifically associated with signature 17, which was found to correlate with the IRF4 K59R mutation that is exclusive to Adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma. Signature 7, implicating UV exposure was uniquely identified in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL), contributing 52% of the mutational burden in mycosis fungoides and 23% in Sezary syndrome. Importantly this UV signature was observed in CD4 + T-cells isolated from the blood of Sezary syndrome patients suggesting extensive re-circulation of these T-cells through skin and blood. Analysis of non-Hodgkin's T-cell lymphoma cases submitted to the national 100,000 WGS project confirmed that signature 7 was only identified in CTCL strongly implicating UV radiation in the pathogenesis of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Databases, Genetic
- Humans
- Interferon Regulatory Factors
- Lymphoma, T-Cell/etiology
- Lymphoma, T-Cell/genetics
- Lymphoma, T-Cell/metabolism
- Lymphoma, T-Cell/pathology
- Lymphoma, T-Cell, Cutaneous/etiology
- Lymphoma, T-Cell, Cutaneous/genetics
- Lymphoma, T-Cell, Cutaneous/pathology
- Mutation/genetics
- Sezary Syndrome/blood
- Skin Neoplasms/pathology
- Ultraviolet Rays/adverse effects
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine L Jones
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Andrea Degasperi
- MRC Cancer Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 197, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0XZ, UK
- Academic Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Lv 6 Addenbrooke's Treatment Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Box 238, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Vieri Grandi
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Tauanne D Amarante
- MRC Cancer Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 197, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0XZ, UK
- Academic Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Lv 6 Addenbrooke's Treatment Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Box 238, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Tracey J Mitchell
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Serena Nik-Zainal
- MRC Cancer Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Box 197, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0XZ, UK
- Academic Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Lv 6 Addenbrooke's Treatment Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Box 238, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Sean J Whittaker
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, SE1 9RT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Feed-forward regulatory loop driven by IRF4 and NF-κB in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. Blood 2020; 135:934-947. [PMID: 31972002 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2019002639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) is a highly aggressive hematological malignancy derived from mature CD4+ T-lymphocytes. Here, we demonstrate the transcriptional regulatory network driven by 2 oncogenic transcription factors, IRF4 and NF-κB, in ATL cells. Gene expression profiling of primary ATL samples demonstrated that the IRF4 gene was more highly expressed in ATL cells than in normal T cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing analysis revealed that IRF4-bound regions were more frequently found in super-enhancers than in typical enhancers. NF-κB was found to co-occupy IRF4-bound regulatory elements and formed a coherent feed-forward loop to coordinately regulate genes involved in T-cell functions and development. Importantly, IRF4 and NF-κB regulated several cancer genes associated with super-enhancers in ATL cells, including MYC, CCR4, and BIRC3. Genetic inhibition of BIRC3 induced growth inhibition in ATL cells, implicating its role as a critical effector molecule downstream of the IRF4-NF-κB transcriptional network.
Collapse
|
13
|
Rauch DA, Olson SL, Harding JC, Sundaramoorthi H, Kim Y, Zhou T, MacLeod AR, Challen G, Ratner L. Interferon regulatory factor 4 as a therapeutic target in adult T-cell leukemia lymphoma. Retrovirology 2020; 17:27. [PMID: 32859220 PMCID: PMC7456374 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-020-00535-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adult T-cell leukemia lymphoma (ATLL) is a chemotherapy-resistant malignancy with a median survival of less than one year that will afflict between one hundred thousand and one million individuals worldwide who are currently infected with human T-cell leukemia virus type 1. Recurrent somatic mutations in host genes have exposed the T-cell receptor pathway through nuclear factor κB to interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) as an essential driver for this malignancy. We sought to determine if IRF4 represents a therapeutic target for ATLL and to identify downstream effectors and biomarkers of IRF4 signaling in vivo. Results ATLL cell lines, particularly Tax viral oncoprotein-negative cell lines, that most closely resemble ATLL in humans, were sensitive to dose- and time-dependent inhibition by a next-generation class of IRF4 antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) that employ constrained ethyl residues that mediate RNase H-dependent RNA degradation. ATLL cell lines were also sensitive to lenalidomide, which repressed IRF4 expression. Both ASOs and lenalidomide inhibited ATLL proliferation in vitro and in vivo. To identify biomarkers of IRF4-mediated CD4 + T-cell expansion in vivo, transcriptomic analysis identified several genes that encode key regulators of ATLL, including interleukin 2 receptor subunits α and β, KIT ligand, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, and thymocyte selection-associated high mobility group protein TOX 2. Conclusions These data support the pursuit of IRF4 as a therapeutic target in ATLL with the use of either ASOs or lenalidomide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Rauch
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, Box 8069, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Sydney L Olson
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, Box 8069, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - John C Harding
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, Box 8069, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Hemalatha Sundaramoorthi
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, Box 8069, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | | | | | | | - Grant Challen
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, Box 8069, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Lee Ratner
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 S Euclid Ave, Box 8069, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kataoka K, Koya J. Clinical application of genomic aberrations in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. J Clin Exp Hematop 2020; 60:66-72. [PMID: 32779615 PMCID: PMC7596910 DOI: 10.3960/jslrt.20019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) is an aggressive peripheral T-cell malignancy with a markedly poor prognosis. The low prevalence of ATL among human T-cell leukemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1) carriers and the long latency period before ATL onset suggest that additional genetic lesions are required for ATL leukemogenesis. Recently, a large-scale genetic analysis clarified the entire picture of genetic alterations, identified a number of novel driver genes, and delineated their characteristics. Frequent alterations are observed in the molecules belonging to T-cell receptor/NF-κB signaling and other T-cell-related pathways. A notable feature of the ATL genome is the predominance of gain-of-function alterations, including activating mutations in PLCG1, PRKCB, and CARD11. As many as one-fourth of all ATL cases harbor structural variations disrupting the 3'-untranslated region of the PD-L1 gene, leading to immune evasion of tumor cells. The frequency and pattern of these somatic alterations differ among clinical subtypes. Aggressive subtypes are associated with an increased burden of genetic alterations, and higher frequencies of TP53 and IRF4 mutations, PD-L1 amplifications, and CDKN2A deletions than indolent subtypes. In contrast, STAT3 mutations are more characteristic of indolent ATL. Furthermore, these subtypes are further classified into molecularly distinct subsets with a different prognosis by genetic alterations. We present an overview of the current understanding of somatic alterations in ATL, with specific focus on their utility in clinical settings. Furthermore, we highlight their genetic features by exploring their similarities and differences among peripheral T-cell lymphomas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Kataoka
- Division of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junji Koya
- Division of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Tearing ATL apart to find HTLV's sinister plans. Blood 2020; 135:887-889. [PMID: 32191800 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2020004998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
16
|
Cells of adult T-cell leukemia evade HTLV-1 Tax/NF-κB hyperactivation-induced senescence. Blood Adv 2020; 3:564-569. [PMID: 30787019 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2018029322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the etiological agent of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). The HTLV-1 viral trans-activator/oncoprotein Tax is a major driver of ATL, yet it induces rapid p21Cip1/Waf1 (p21)- and p27Kip1-mediated cellular senescence through constitutive activation (hyperactivation) of NF-κB. Although constitutive NF-κB activation is a common feature of T/B-cell leukemia/lymphoma, including ATL, it is not known how ATL cells maintain chronic NF-κB activation without undergoing senescence. Here, we demonstrate that, in contrast to HTLV-1- T-cell lines, ATL cell lines no longer undergo Tax-induced senescence. Although Tax+ and Tax- ATL cell lines showed signatures of constitutive NF-κB activation, their ability to progress through the cell cycle was unaffected. In some cases, ATL cell lines continued to proliferate despite significant upregulation of p21; additionally, many cell lines displayed altered expression of G1 and G1/S cyclins, particularly overexpression of cyclin D2. We propose that, during the course of ATL development, leukemia cells acquire genetic/epigenetic changes that can mitigate the senescence response triggered by NF-κB hyperactivation. Restoring the NF-κB-induced senescence response would likely help to control the development and progression of ATL and similar lymphoid malignancies.
Collapse
|
17
|
Adkins BD, Ramos JC, Bliss-Moreau M, Gru AA. Updates in lymph node and skin pathology of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma, biomarkers, and beyond. Semin Diagn Pathol 2020; 37:1-10. [PMID: 31889601 PMCID: PMC7668393 DOI: 10.1053/j.semdp.2019.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) is a mature T-cell lymphoproliferative disorder associated with the human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1) infection. ATLL predominantly affects individuals within HTLV-1 endemic areas such as Japan, areas of Africa, South America, and the Caribbean. HTLV-1 preferentially infects CD4+ T-cells, and several genetic hits must occur before ATLL develops. ATLL is classically divided into four clinical variants based on manifestations of disease: acute, chronic, lymphomatous, and smouldering. As of 2019, a new subtype has been described: lymphoma type of ATL, extranodal primary cutaneous. In this review, emphasis will be taken to describe the common clinicopathologic manifestations of the disease, advances in biomarker discovery, mutational landscape and targeted therapeutic approaches to treat this highly aggressive and frequently lethal type of T-cell lymphoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Adkins
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Juan C Ramos
- Division of Hematology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Meghan Bliss-Moreau
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Alejandro A Gru
- Pathology & Dermatology, Hematopathology and Dermatopathology Sections, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Le Y. Screening and identification of key candidate genes and pathways in myelodysplastic syndrome by bioinformatic analysis. PeerJ 2019; 7:e8162. [PMID: 31803541 PMCID: PMC6886488 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is a heterogeneous hematologic malignancy derived from hematopoietic stem cells and the molecular mechanism of MDS remains unclear. This study aimed to elucidate potential markers of diagnosis and prognosis of MDS. The gene expression profiles GSE19429 and GSE58831 were obtained and downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in MDS were screened using GEO2R and overlapped DEGs were obtained with Venn Diagrams. Then, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway functional enrichment analyses, protein–protein interaction network establishment and survival analyses were performed. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that these DEGs were significantly enriched in the interferon signaling pathway, immune response, hematopoietic cell lineage and the FOXO signaling pathway. Four hub genes and four significant modules including 25 module genes were obtained via Cytoscape MCODE. Survival analysis showed that the overall survival of MDS patients having BLNK, IRF4, IFITM1, IFIT1, ISG20, IFI44L alterations were worse than that without alterations. In conclusion, the identification of these genes and pathways helps understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of MDS and provides candidate targets for the diagnosis and prognosis of MDS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Le
- Department of Hematology, Maoming People's Hospital, Maoming, Guangdong, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Abstract
Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a horizontally transmitted virus infection of CD4+ lymphocytes which causes adult T cell leukemia-lymphoma (ATLL) and HTLV-associated myelopathy (HAM). The viral genome encodes two oncoproteins, transactivator protein (Tax) and helix basic zipper protein (HBZ), which are considered tumor initiator and maintenance factors, respectively. Tax is the primary inducer of clonal infected T cell expansion, and genetic instability. The immune response to Tax results in the selection of cells with little or no Tax expression, which have undergone genetic and epigenetic alterations that promote T cell activation, proliferation, and resistance to apoptosis. This selection of malignant cells occurs over several decades in 5% of infected individuals. Novel insights into the molecular details of each of these events has led to targeted therapies for ATLL.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lee Ratner
- Division of Oncology, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8069, 660 S Euclid Ave, St Louis, MO 63110, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Futsch N, Prates G, Mahieux R, Casseb J, Dutartre H. Cytokine Networks Dysregulation during HTLV-1 Infection and Associated Diseases. Viruses 2018; 10:v10120691. [PMID: 30563084 PMCID: PMC6315340 DOI: 10.3390/v10120691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of a neural chronic inflammation, called HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) and of a malignant lymphoproliferation, called the adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL). The mechanisms through which the HTLV-1 induces these diseases are still unclear, but they might rely on immune alterations. HAM/TSP is associated with an impaired production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, CXCL9, or CXCL10. ATLL is associated with high levels of IL-10 and TGF-β. These immunosuppressive cytokines could promote a protumoral micro-environment. Moreover, HTLV-1 infection impairs the IFN-I production and signaling, and favors the IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6 expression. This contributes both to immune escape and to infected cells proliferation. Here, we review the landscape of cytokine dysregulations induced by HTLV-1 infection and the role of these cytokines in the HTLV-1-associated diseases progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Futsch
- Équipe Oncogenèse Rétrovirale, Equipe Labellisée «FRM», CIRI-Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Inserm U1111, CNRS UMR5308, Labex Ecofect, ENS Lyon, F-69007 Lyon, France.
| | - Gabriela Prates
- Institute of Tropical Medicine of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05403-000, Brazil.
- Laboratory of Dermatology and Immunodeficiencies, Department of Dermatology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, SP 01246-100, Brazil.
| | - Renaud Mahieux
- Équipe Oncogenèse Rétrovirale, Equipe Labellisée «FRM», CIRI-Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Inserm U1111, CNRS UMR5308, Labex Ecofect, ENS Lyon, F-69007 Lyon, France.
| | - Jorge Casseb
- Institute of Tropical Medicine of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05403-000, Brazil.
- Laboratory of Dermatology and Immunodeficiencies, Department of Dermatology, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, SP 01246-100, Brazil.
| | - Hélène Dutartre
- Équipe Oncogenèse Rétrovirale, Equipe Labellisée «FRM», CIRI-Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Inserm U1111, CNRS UMR5308, Labex Ecofect, ENS Lyon, F-69007 Lyon, France.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Thompson CD, Matta B, Barnes BJ. Therapeutic Targeting of IRFs: Pathway-Dependence or Structure-Based? Front Immunol 2018; 9:2622. [PMID: 30515152 PMCID: PMC6255967 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) are a family of master transcription factors that regulate pathogen-induced innate and acquired immune responses. Aberration(s) in IRF signaling pathways due to infection, genetic predisposition and/or mutation, which can lead to increased expression of type I interferon (IFN) genes, IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), and other pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines, has been linked to the development of numerous diseases, including (but not limited to) autoimmune and cancer. What is currently lacking in the field is an understanding of how best to therapeutically target these transcription factors. Many IRFs are regulated by post-translational modifications downstream of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and some of these modifications lead to activation or inhibition. We and others have been able to utilize structural features of the IRFs in order to generate dominant negative mutants that inhibit function. Here, we will review potential therapeutic strategies for targeting all IRFs by using IRF5 as a candidate targeting molecule.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cherrie D Thompson
- Center for Autoimmune Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, United States
| | - Bharati Matta
- Center for Autoimmune Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, United States
| | - Betsy J Barnes
- Center for Autoimmune Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|