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Kremer S, Shakhnovich V, Riffel AK, Harvey L, Borges CR. Delta-S-Cys-Albumin as a Marker of Pediatric Biospecimen Integrity. Biopreserv Biobank 2024. [PMID: 38651617 DOI: 10.1089/bio.2023.0121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Blood plasma storage is a crucial element of pediatric biobanking. Improperly stored or handled specimens (e.g., at > -30°C) can result in altered biomolecular compositions that no longer reflects in vivo reality. We report application of a previously developed assay in adults-the ΔS-Cys-Albumin assay, which facilitates estimation of plasma and serum exposure to thawed conditions-to a population of pediatric EDTA plasma samples from patients aged 3-18 years to determine the assay's applicability, estimate its reference range for pediatric samples, and assess the impact of pre-centrifugation delay at 0°C. In addition, the effect of plasma thawed-state exposure to a range of times at 23°C, 4°C, and -20°C on ΔS-Cys-Albumin was evaluated. Using 98 precollected and processed pediatric EDTA plasma specimens, no difference was found in ΔS-Cys-Albumin under conditions of pre-centrifugation delay for up to 10 hours at 0°C. This lack of change allowed us to estimate a pediatric reference range for ΔS-Cys-Albumin of 7.0%-22.5% (mean of 12.8%) with a modest Pearson correlation between ΔS-Cys-Albumin and age (p = 0.0037, R2 = 0.29). ΔS-Cys-Albumin stability in six specimens at 23°C, 4°C, and -20°C was also evaluated. Plateaus in the decay curves were reached by 1 day, 7 days, and 14-28 days at these respective temperatures. The estimated pediatric reference range observed in children was lower than that previously observed in 180 adults of 12.3%-30.6% (mean of 20.0%), and the slope of the age correlation in children was twice as steep as that from adults. ΔS-Cys-Albumin decay curves at 23°C, 4°C, and -20°C were similar to those previously observed in adults. The data reported here support the use of ΔS-Cys-Albumin in evaluating the integrity and overall exposure of pediatric EDTA plasma specimens to thawed conditions. In doing so, they add an important quality control tool to the biobanker's arsenal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Schuyler Kremer
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Valentina Shakhnovich
- Children's Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
- School of Medicine, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
- Ironwood Pharmaceuticals, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Lisa Harvey
- Children's Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
| | - Chad R Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
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2
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Jehanathan N, Kapuruge EP, Rogers SP, Williams S, Chung Y, Borges CR. Oxidized LDL is stable in human serum under extended thawed-state conditions ranging from -20 °C to room temperature. J Mass Spectrom Adv Clin Lab 2022; 27:18-23. [PMID: 36578466 PMCID: PMC9791165 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmsacl.2022.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Oxidized LDL (oxLDL) is formed by the spontaneous reaction between aldehyde byproducts of lipid peroxidation and lysine residues of apolipoprotein B within LDL. Clinically, oxLDL is used as a marker of coronary artery disease and predictor of metabolic syndrome risk. Despite its popularity as a clinical marker, no systematic studies of oxLDL stability, in which serum or plasma has been pre-analytically exposed to an array of different time and temperature conditions, have been carried out. Objective To systematically evaluate the stability of oxLDL in human serum samples exposed to thawed conditions (> -30 °C) for varying periods of time while monitoring a second protein/small molecule redox system as a positive control for non-enzymatic biomolecular activity. Methods OxLDL was measured in serum samples, from 24 different humans, that had been pre-exposed to three different time courses at 23 °C, 4 °C and -20 °C using ELISA kits from Mercodia that employ the 4E6 mouse monoclonal antibody. A liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry-based marker of serum exposure to thawed conditions known as ΔS-Cys-Albumin was employed as a positive control. Results OxLDL was stable in serum exposed to 23 °C for up to 48 h, 4 °C for 21 days, or -20 °C for 65 days. ΔS-Cys-Albumin changed dramatically during these time courses (p < 0.001). Conclusions OxLDL is remarkably stable ex vivo in human serum samples exposed to thawed conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nilojan Jehanathan
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States,The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Erandi P. Kapuruge
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States,The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Stephen P. Rogers
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Stacy Williams
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Yunro Chung
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States,College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, United States
| | - Chad R. Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States,The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States,Corresponding author at: The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, P.O. Box 876401, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States.
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3
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Kapuruge EP, Jehanathan N, Rogers SP, Williams S, Chung Y, Borges CR. Tracking the Stability of Clinically Relevant Blood Plasma Proteins with Delta-S-Cys-Albumin-A Dilute-and-Shoot LC/MS-Based Marker of Specimen Exposure to Thawed Conditions. Mol Cell Proteomics 2022; 21:100420. [PMID: 36182099 PMCID: PMC9637815 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcpro.2022.100420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomolecular integrity can be compromised when blood plasma/serum (P/S) specimens are improperly handled. Compromised analytes can subsequently produce erroneous results-without any indication of having done so. We recently introduced an LC/MS-based marker of P/S exposure to thawed conditions called ΔS-Cys-Albumin which, aided by an established rate law, quantitatively tracks exposure of P/S to temperatures greater than their freezing point of -30 °C. The purposes of this study were to (1) evaluate ΔS-Cys-Albumin baseline values in gastrointestinal cancer patients and cancer-free control donors, (2) empirically assess the kinetic profiles of ΔS-Cys-Albumin at 23 °C, 4 °C, and -20 °C, and (3) empirically link ΔS-Cys-Albumin to the stability of clinically relevant proteins. ΔS-Cys-Albumin was measured at ≥ 9 different time points per exposure temperature in serum and K2EDTA plasma samples from 24 separate donors in aliquots kept separately at 23 °C, 4 °C, and -20 °C. Twenty-one clinically relevant plasma proteins were measured at four time points per temperature via a multiplexed immunoassay on the Luminex platform. Protein stability was assessed by mixed effects models. Coordinated shifts in stability between ΔS-Cys-Albumin and the unstable proteins were documented by repeated measures and Pearson correlations. Plasma ΔS-Cys-Albumin dropped from approximately 20% to under 5% within 96 h at 23 °C, 28 days at 4 °C, and 65 days at -20 °C. On average, 22% of the 21 proteins significantly changed in apparent concentration at each exposure temperature (p < 0.0008 with >10% shift). A linear inverse relationship was found between the percentage of proteins destabilized and ΔS-Cys-Albumin (r = -0.61; p < 0.0001)-regardless of the specific time/temperature of exposure. ΔS-Cys-Albumin tracks cumulative thawed-state exposure. These results now enable ΔS-Cys-Albumin to approximate the percentage of clinically relevant proteins that have been compromised by incidental plasma exposure to thawed-state conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erandi P. Kapuruge
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA,The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Nilojan Jehanathan
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA,The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Stephen P. Rogers
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Stacy Williams
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Yunro Chung
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA,College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Chad R. Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA,The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA,For correspondence: Chad R. Borges
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4
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Demus D, Naber A, Dotz V, Jansen BC, Bladergroen MR, Nouta J, Sijbrands EJG, Van Hoek M, Nicolardi S, Wuhrer M. Large-Scale Analysis of Apolipoprotein CIII Glycosylation by Ultrahigh Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Front Chem 2021; 9:678883. [PMID: 34026735 PMCID: PMC8138127 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.678883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein-CIII (apo-CIII) is a glycoprotein involved in lipid metabolism and its levels are associated with cardiovascular disease risk. Apo-CIII sialylation is associated with improved plasma triglyceride levels and its glycosylation may have an effect on the clearance of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins by directing these particles to different metabolic pathways. Large-scale sample cohort studies are required to fully elucidate the role of apo-CIII glycosylation in lipid metabolism and associated cardiovascular disease. In this study, we revisited a high-throughput workflow for the analysis of intact apo-CIII by ultrahigh-resolution MALDI FT-ICR MS. The workflow includes a chemical oxidation step to reduce methionine oxidation heterogeneity and spectrum complexity. Sinapinic acid matrix was used to minimize the loss of sialic acids upon MALDI. MassyTools software was used to standardize and automate MS data processing and quality control. This method was applied on 771 plasma samples from individuals without diabetes allowing for an evaluation of the expression levels of apo-CIII glycoforms against a panel of lipid biomarkers demonstrating the validity of the method. Our study supports the hypothesis that triglyceride clearance may be regulated, or at least strongly influenced by apo-CIII sialylation. Interestingly, the association of apo-CIII glycoforms with triglyceride levels was found to be largely independent of body mass index. Due to its precision and throughput, the new workflow will allow studying the role of apo-CIII in the regulation of lipid metabolism in various disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Demus
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands.,Ludger Ltd., Culham Science Centre, Abingdon, United Kingdom
| | - Annemieke Naber
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Viktoria Dotz
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Bas C Jansen
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands.,Ludger Ltd., Culham Science Centre, Abingdon, United Kingdom
| | - Marco R Bladergroen
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Jan Nouta
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Eric J G Sijbrands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mandy Van Hoek
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Simone Nicolardi
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Manfred Wuhrer
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, Netherlands
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5
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Hu Y, Mulot C, Bourreau C, Martin D, Laurent-Puig P, Radoï L, Guénel P, Borges CR. Biochemically Tracked Variability of Blood Plasma Thawed-State Exposure Times in a Multisite Collection Study. Biopreserv Biobank 2020; 18:376-388. [PMID: 32608993 PMCID: PMC9836705 DOI: 10.1089/bio.2019.0137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The integrity of blood plasma/serum (P/S) specimens can be impacted by preanalytical handling and storage conditions that result in thawed-state exposures (> -30°C). We recently reported a simple dilute-and-shoot, intact-protein liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) assay called ΔS-Cys-Albumin that quantifies cumulative exposure of P/S to thawed conditions based on the change in relative abundance of the oxidized (S-cysteinylated) proteoform of albumin (S-Cys-Albumin) in the native sample to that of an aliquot of the sample intentionally driven to its maximum oxidation state. Herein, we evaluated the effect of prestorage delay and initial storage temperature on sample integrity by applying the ΔS-Cys-Albumin assay to a set of plasma samples (n = 413) collected under a single clinical study but from 12 different collection sites. Major differences (p < 0.0001) were observed between different groups of samples with modestly inconsistent initial handling conditions (i.e., initial processing of whole blood to plasma and placement at -80°C completed in under 3 hours, 3-13 hours, and over 17 hours). ΔS-Cys-Albumin was significantly inversely correlated with delay time at 4°C before centrifugation and total delay before final storage at -80°C (p < 0.0001). Samples from two collection sites had much lower ΔS-Cys-Albumin values relative to samples from other sites, in accordance with the fact that they were stored at -20°C for an average of 7.6 months before shipment to the central repository for final storage at -80°C. Based on the rate law for S-Cys-Albumin formation in plasma ex vivo, the average time that each plasma specimen had been exposed to the equivalent of room temperature (23°C) was back calculated from the measured ΔS-Cys-Albumin values. A survey of clinical analytes in P/S whose measured concentrations are sensitive to the initial handling/storage conditions documented in this study is provided and the ramifications of the plasma integrity findings from this multisite clinical study are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueming Hu
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Claire Mulot
- INSERM, UMR-S 1147, CRB EPIGENETEC, Université Paris Descartes, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Camille Bourreau
- INSERM, UMR-S 1147, CRB EPIGENETEC, Université Paris Descartes, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Diane Martin
- INSERM, Center for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health (CESP), Cancer and Environment Team, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Pierre Laurent-Puig
- INSERM, UMR-S 1147, CRB EPIGENETEC, Université Paris Descartes, Université Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Loredana Radoï
- INSERM, Center for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health (CESP), Cancer and Environment Team, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France.,Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Pascal Guénel
- INSERM, Center for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health (CESP), Cancer and Environment Team, Université Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Chad R. Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA.,Address correspondence to: Chad R. Borges, PhD, School of Molecular Sciences, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, P.O. Box 876401, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
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6
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Jeffs JW, Jehanathan N, Thibert SMF, Ferdosi S, Pham L, Wilson ZT, Breburda C, Borges CR. Delta-S-Cys-Albumin: A Lab Test that Quantifies Cumulative Exposure of Archived Human Blood Plasma and Serum Samples to Thawed Conditions. Mol Cell Proteomics 2019; 18:2121-2137. [PMID: 31324658 PMCID: PMC6773563 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.tir119.001659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure of blood plasma/serum (P/S) to thawed conditions (> -30 °C) can produce biomolecular changes that skew measurements of biomarkers within archived patient samples, potentially rendering them unfit for molecular analysis. Because freeze-thaw histories are often poorly documented, objective methods for assessing molecular fitness before analysis are needed. We report a 10-μl, dilute-and-shoot, intact-protein mass spectrometric assay of albumin proteoforms called "ΔS-Cys-Albumin" that quantifies cumulative exposure of archived P/S samples to thawed conditions. The relative abundance of S-cysteinylated (oxidized) albumin in P/S increases inexorably but to a maximum value under 100% when samples are exposed to temperatures > -30 °C. The difference in the relative abundance of S-cysteinylated albumin (S-Cys-Alb) before and after an intentional incubation period that drives this proteoform to its maximum level is denoted as ΔS-Cys-Albumin. ΔS-Cys-Albumin in fully expired samples is zero. The range (mean ± 95% CI) observed for ΔS-Cys-Albumin in fresh cardiac patient P/S (n = 97) was, for plasma 12-29% (20.9 ± 0.75%) and for serum 10-24% (15.5 ± 0.64%). The multireaction rate law that governs S-Cys-Alb formation in P/S was determined and shown to predict the rate of formation of S-Cys-Alb in plasma and serum samples-a step that enables back-calculation of the time at which unknown P/S specimens have been exposed to room temperature. A blind challenge demonstrated that ΔS-Cys-Albumin can detect exposure of groups (n = 6 each) of P/S samples to 23 °C for 2 h, 4 °C for 16 h, or -20 °C for 24 h-and exposure of individual specimens for modestly increased times. An unplanned case study of nominally pristine serum samples collected under NIH-sponsorship demonstrated that empirical evidence is required to ensure accurate knowledge of archived P/S biospecimen storage history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua W Jeffs
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
| | - Nilojan Jehanathan
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
| | - Stephanie M F Thibert
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
| | - Shadi Ferdosi
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287
| | - Linda Pham
- Maricopa Integrated Health System, Phoenix, AZ 85008
| | - Zachary T Wilson
- Maricopa Integrated Health System, Phoenix, AZ 85008; University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ 85004
| | - Christian Breburda
- Maricopa Integrated Health System, Phoenix, AZ 85008; University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ 85004
| | - Chad R Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences and The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287.
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Ferdosi S, Rehder DS, Maranian P, Castle EP, Ho TH, Pass HI, Cramer DW, Anderson KS, Fu L, Cole DEC, Le T, Wu X, Borges CR. Stage Dependence, Cell-Origin Independence, and Prognostic Capacity of Serum Glycan Fucosylation, β1-4 Branching, β1-6 Branching, and α2-6 Sialylation in Cancer. J Proteome Res 2018; 17:543-558. [PMID: 29129073 PMCID: PMC5978412 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.7b00672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Glycans represent a promising but only marginally accessed source of cancer markers. We previously reported the development of a molecularly bottom-up approach to plasma and serum (P/S) glycomics based on glycan linkage analysis that captures features such as α2-6 sialylation, β1-6 branching, and core fucosylation as single analytical signals. Based on the behavior of P/S glycans established to date, we hypothesized that the alteration of P/S glycans observed in cancer would be independent of the tissue in which the tumor originated yet exhibit stage dependence that varied little between cancers classified on the basis of tumor origin. Herein, the diagnostic utility of this bottom-up approach as applied to lung cancer patients (n = 127 stage I; n = 20 stage II; n = 81 stage III; and n = 90 stage IV) as well as prostate (n = 40 stage II), serous ovarian (n = 59 stage III), and pancreatic cancer patients (n = 15 rapid autopsy) compared to certifiably healthy individuals (n = 30), nominally healthy individuals (n = 166), and risk-matched controls (n = 300) is reported. Diagnostic performance in lung cancer was stage-dependent, with markers for terminal (total) fucosylation, α2-6 sialylation, β1-4 branching, β1-6 branching, and outer-arm fucosylation most able to differentiate cases from controls. These markers behaved in a similar stage-dependent manner in other types of cancer as well. Notable differences between certifiably healthy individuals and case-matched controls were observed. These markers were not significantly elevated in liver fibrosis. Using a Cox proportional hazards regression model, the marker for α2-6 sialylation was found to predict both progression and survival in lung cancer patients after adjusting for age, gender, smoking status, and stage. The potential mechanistic role of aberrant P/S glycans in cancer progression is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shadi Ferdosi
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Douglas S. Rehder
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Paul Maranian
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Erik P. Castle
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona 85054, United States
| | - Thai H. Ho
- Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, Arizona 85054, United States
| | - Harvey I. Pass
- Cardiothoracic Surgery, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Daniel W. Cramer
- Obstetrics and Gynecology Epidemiology Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Karen S. Anderson
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Lei Fu
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - David E. C. Cole
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Tao Le
- University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Xifeng Wu
- University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Chad R. Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
- Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
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8
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Ex vivo instability of glycated albumin: A role for autoxidative glycation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2017; 629:36-42. [PMID: 28712850 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2017.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ex vivo protein modifications occur within plasma and serum (P/S) samples due to prolonged exposure to the thawed state-which includes temperatures above -30 °C. Herein, the ex vivo glycation of human serum albumin from healthy and diabetic subjects was monitored in P/S samples stored for hours to months at -80 °C, -20 °C, and room temperature, as well as in samples subjected to multiple freeze-thaw cycles, incubated at different surface area-to-volume ratios or under different atmospheric compositions. A simple dilute-and-shoot method utilizing trap-and-elute LC-ESI-MS was employed to determine the relative abundances of the glycated forms of albumin-including forms of albumin bearing more than one glucose molecule. Significant increases in glycated albumin were found to occur within hours at room temperature, and within days at -20 °C. These increases continued over a period of 1-2 weeks at room temperature and over 200 days at -20 °C, ultimately resulting in a doubling of glycated albumin in both healthy and diabetic patients. It was also shown that samples stored at lower surface area-to-volume ratios or incubated under a nitrogen atmosphere experienced less rapid glucose adduction of albumin-suggesting a role for oxidative glycation in the ex vivo glycation of albumin.
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9
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Ingram T, Zuck J, Borges CR, Redig P, Sweazea KL. Variations in native protein glycation and plasma antioxidants in several birds of prey. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 210:18-28. [PMID: 28529085 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Birds are an anomaly among vertebrates as they are remarkably long-lived despite having naturally high blood glucose and metabolic rates. For mammals, hyperglycemia leads to oxidative stress and protein glycation. In contrast, many studies have shown that domestic and wild birds are relatively resistant to these glucose-mediated pathologies. Surprisingly very little research has examined protein glycation in birds of prey, which by nature consume a diet high in protein and fat that promotes gluconeogenesis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate protein glycation and antioxidant concentrations in serum samples from several birds of prey (bald eagle (BAEA), red-tailed hawk (RTHA), barred owl (BAOW), great horned owl (GHOW)) as protein glycation can accelerate oxidative stress and vice versa. Serum glucose was measured using a commercially available assay, native albumin glycation was measured by mass spectrometry and various antioxidants (uric acid, vitamin E, retinol and several carotenoids) were measured by high performance liquid chromatography. Although glucose concentrations were not significantly different between species (p=0.340), albumin glycation was significantly higher (p=0.004) in BAEA (23.67±1.90%) and BAOW (24.28±1.43%) compared to RTHA (14.31±0.63%). Of the antioxidants examined, lutein was significantly higher in BAOW (p=0.008). BAEA had the highest beta-cryptoxanthin and beta-carotene concentrations (p<0.005). The high concentrations of antioxidants in these birds of prey relative to other birds likely helps protect from complications that may otherwise arise from having high glucose and protein glycation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tana Ingram
- School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University
| | - Jessica Zuck
- School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University
| | - Chad R Borges
- School of Molecular Sciences & The Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Patrick Redig
- Raptor Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota
| | - Karen L Sweazea
- School of Nutrition and Health Promotion, Arizona State University; School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University.
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10
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Zuck J, Borges CR, Braun EJ, Sweazea KL. Chicken albumin exhibits natural resistance to glycation. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 203:108-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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11
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Zhu L, Fang L. AIBP: A Novel Molecule at the Interface of Cholesterol Transport, Angiogenesis, and Atherosclerosis. Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J 2016; 11:160-5. [PMID: 26634023 DOI: 10.14797/mdcj-11-3-160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease, which is often driven by hypercholesterolemia and subsequent coronary atherosclerosis, is the number-one cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States. Based on long-term epidemiological studies, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels are inversely correlated with risk for coronary artery disease (CAD). HDL-mediated reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) is responsible for cholesterol removal from the peripheral tissues and return to the liver for final elimination.1 In atherosclerosis, intraplaque angiogenesis promotes plaque growth and increases plaque vulnerability. Conceivably, the acceleration of RCT and disruption of intraplaque angiogenesis would inhibit atherosclerosis and reduce CAD. We have identified a protein called apoA-I binding protein (AIBP) that augments HDL functionality by accelerating cholesterol efflux. Furthermore, AIBP inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 activation in endothelial cells and limits angiogenesis.2 The following discusses the prospect of using AIBP as a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of CAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Zhu
- Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Longhou Fang
- Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
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12
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Preianò M, Maggisano G, Lombardo N, Montalcini T, Paduano S, Pelaia G, Savino R, Terracciano R. Influence of storage conditions on MALDI-TOF MS profiling of gingival crevicular fluid: Implications on the role of S100A8 and S100A9 for clinical and proteomic based diagnostic investigations. Proteomics 2016; 16:1033-45. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201500328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mariaimmacolata Preianò
- Department of Health Sciences; Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Giuseppina Maggisano
- Department of Health Sciences; Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Nicola Lombardo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Tiziana Montalcini
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Sergio Paduano
- Department of Health Sciences; Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Girolamo Pelaia
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Rocco Savino
- Department of Health Sciences; Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
| | - Rosa Terracciano
- Department of Health Sciences; Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics; University “Magna Graecia”; Catanzaro Italy
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13
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Luna C, Alique M, Navalmoral E, Noci MV, Bohorquez-Magro L, Carracedo J, Ramírez R. Aging-associated oxidized albumin promotes cellular senescence and endothelial damage. Clin Interv Aging 2016; 11:225-36. [PMID: 27042026 PMCID: PMC4780186 DOI: 10.2147/cia.s91453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased levels of oxidized proteins with aging have been considered a cardiovascular risk factor. However, it is unclear whether oxidized albumin, which is the most abundant serum protein, induces endothelial damage. The results of this study indicated that with aging processes, the levels of oxidized proteins as well as endothelial microparticles release increased, a novel marker of endothelial damage. Among these, oxidized albumin seems to play a principal role. Through in vitro studies, endothelial cells cultured with oxidized albumin exhibited an increment of endothelial damage markers such as adhesion molecules and apoptosis levels. In addition, albumin oxidation increased the amount of endothelial microparticles that were released. Moreover, endothelial cells with increased oxidative stress undergo senescence. In addition, endothelial cells cultured with oxidized albumin shown a reduction in endothelial cell migration measured by wound healing. As a result, we provide the first evidence that oxidized albumin induces endothelial injury which then contributes to the increase of cardiovascular disease in the elderly subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Luna
- Nephrology Unit, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Matilde Alique
- Department of Systems Biology, Physiology Unit, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
| | - Estefanía Navalmoral
- Department of Systems Biology, Physiology Unit, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Julia Carracedo
- Nephrology Unit, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Rafael Ramírez
- Department of Systems Biology, Physiology Unit, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
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14
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Ho TH, Nateras RN, Yan H, Park JG, Jensen S, Borges C, Lee JH, Champion MD, Tibes R, Bryce AH, Carballido EM, Todd MA, Joseph RW, Wong WW, Parker AS, Stanton ML, Castle EP. A Multidisciplinary Biospecimen Bank of Renal Cell Carcinomas Compatible with Discovery Platforms at Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132831. [PMID: 26181416 PMCID: PMC4504486 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To address the need to study frozen clinical specimens using next-generation RNA, DNA, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) sequencing and protein analyses, we developed a biobank work flow to prospectively collect biospecimens from patients with renal cell carcinoma (RCC). We describe our standard operating procedures and work flow to annotate pathologic results and clinical outcomes. We report quality control outcomes and nucleic acid yields of our RCC submissions (N=16) to The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) project, as well as newer discovery platforms, by describing mass spectrometry analysis of albumin oxidation in plasma and 6 ChIP sequencing libraries generated from nephrectomy specimens after histone H3 lysine 36 trimethylation (H3K36me3) immunoprecipitation. From June 1, 2010, through January 1, 2013, we enrolled 328 patients with RCC. Our mean (SD) TCGA RNA integrity numbers (RINs) were 8.1 (0.8) for papillary RCC, with a 12.5% overall rate of sample disqualification for RIN <7. Banked plasma had significantly less albumin oxidation (by mass spectrometry analysis) than plasma kept at 25 °C (P<.001). For ChIP sequencing, the FastQC score for average read quality was at least 30 for 91% to 95% of paired-end reads. In parallel, we analyzed frozen tissue by RNA sequencing; after genome alignment, only 0.2% to 0.4% of total reads failed the default quality check steps of Bowtie2, which was comparable to the disqualification ratio (0.1%) of the 786-O RCC cell line that was prepared under optimal RNA isolation conditions. The overall correlation coefficients for gene expression between Mayo Clinic vs TCGA tissues ranged from 0.75 to 0.82. These data support the generation of high-quality nucleic acids for genomic analyses from banked RCC. Importantly, the protocol does not interfere with routine clinical care. Collections over defined time points during disease treatment further enhance collaborative efforts to integrate genomic information with outcomes.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Arizona
- Biological Specimen Banks/organization & administration
- Carcinoma, Renal Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Renal Cell/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Renal Cell/pathology
- Carcinoma, Renal Cell/surgery
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Chromatin Immunoprecipitation
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Gene Library
- Histones/genetics
- Histones/metabolism
- Humans
- Kidney Neoplasms/genetics
- Kidney Neoplasms/metabolism
- Kidney Neoplasms/pathology
- Kidney Neoplasms/surgery
- Male
- Methylation
- Middle Aged
- Oxidation-Reduction
- Quality Control
- RNA, Neoplasm/chemistry
- RNA, Neoplasm/genetics
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Sequence Analysis, RNA
- Serum Albumin/chemistry
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Affiliation(s)
- Thai H. Ho
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Rafael Nunez Nateras
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic Hospital, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Huihuang Yan
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Jin G. Park
- Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Sally Jensen
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Biodesign Institute-Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Chad Borges
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, The Biodesign Institute-Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Jeong Heon Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Mia D. Champion
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Raoul Tibes
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Alan H. Bryce
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Estrella M. Carballido
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Mark A. Todd
- Division of Anatomic Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Richard W. Joseph
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - William W. Wong
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Alexander S. Parker
- Departments of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Melissa L. Stanton
- Department of Laboratory Medicine/Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Erik P. Castle
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic Hospital, Phoenix, Arizona, United States of America
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15
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Phenotype-Driven Plasma Biobanking Strategies and Methods. J Pers Med 2015; 5:140-52. [PMID: 26110578 PMCID: PMC4493492 DOI: 10.3390/jpm5020140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Biobank development and integration with clinical data from electronic medical record (EMR) databases have enabled recent strides in genomic research and personalized medicine. BioVU, Vanderbilt's DNA biorepository linked to de-identified clinical EMRs, has proven fruitful in its capacity to extensively appeal to numerous areas of biomedical and clinical research, supporting the discovery of genotype-phenotype interactions. Expanding on experiences in BioVU creation and development, we have recently embarked on a parallel effort to collect plasma in addition to DNA from blood specimens leftover after routine clinical testing at Vanderbilt. This initiative offers expanded utility of BioVU by combining proteomic and metabolomic approaches with genomics and/or clinical outcomes, widening the breadth for potential research and subsequent future impact on clinical care. Here, we describe the considerations and components involved in implementing a plasma biobank program from a feasibility assessment through pilot sample collection.
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16
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Arentz G, Weiland F, Oehler MK, Hoffmann P. State of the art of 2D DIGE. Proteomics Clin Appl 2015; 9:277-88. [DOI: 10.1002/prca.201400119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Arentz
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science; Adelaide Proteomics Centre; The University of Adelaide; Adelaide Australia
| | - Florian Weiland
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science; Adelaide Proteomics Centre; The University of Adelaide; Adelaide Australia
| | - Martin K. Oehler
- School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health; Research Centre for Reproductive Health; Robinson Institute; University of Adelaide; SA Australia
- Department of Gynaecological Oncology; Royal Adelaide Hospital; Adelaide SA Australia
| | - Peter Hoffmann
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science; Adelaide Proteomics Centre; The University of Adelaide; Adelaide Australia
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17
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Trenchevska O, Sherma ND, Oran PE, Reaven PD, Nelson RW, Nedelkov D. Quantitative mass spectrometric immunoassay for the chemokine RANTES and its variants. J Proteomics 2014; 116:15-23. [PMID: 25549571 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The chemokine RANTES plays a key role in inflammation, cell recruitment and T cell activation. RANTES is heterogenic and exists as multiple variants in vivo. Herein we describe the development and characterization of a fully quantitative mass spectrometric immunoassay (MSIA) for analysis of intact RANTES and its proteoforms in human serum and plasma samples. The assay exhibits linearity over a wide concentration range (1.56-200ng/mL), intra- and inter-assay precision with CVs <10%, and good linearity and recovery correlations. The assay was tested in different biological matrices, and it was benchmarked against an existing RANTES ELISA. The new RANTES MSIA was used to analyze RANTES and its proteoforms in a small clinical cohort, revealing the quantitative distribution and frequency of the native and truncated RANTES proteoforms. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE In the last two decades, RANTES has been studied extensively due to its association with numerous clinical conditions, including kidney-related, autoimmune, cardiovascular, viral and metabolic pathologies. Although a single gene product, RANTES is expressed in a range of cells and tissues presenting with different endogenously produced variants and PTMs. The structural variety and population diversity that has been identified for RANTES necessitate developing advanced methodologies that can provide insight into the protein heterogeneity and its function and regulation in disease. In this work we present a simple, efficient and high-throughput mass spectrometric immunoassay (MSIA) method for analysis of RANTES proteoforms. RANTES MSIA can detect and analyze RANTES proteoforms and provide an insight into the endogenous protein modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olgica Trenchevska
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States.
| | - Nisha D Sherma
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Paul E Oran
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | | | - Randall W Nelson
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
| | - Dobrin Nedelkov
- The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, United States
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18
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Yassine HN, Jackson AM, Reaven PD, Nedelkov D, Nelson RW, Lau SS, Borchers CH. The Application of Multiple Reaction Monitoring to Assess Apo A-I Methionine Oxidations in Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease. TRANSLATIONAL PROTEOMICS 2014; 4-5:18-24. [PMID: 25705587 DOI: 10.1016/j.trprot.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The oxidative modification of apolipoprotein A-I 's methionine148(M148) is associated with defective HDL function in vitro. Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) is a mass spectrometric technique that can be used to quantitate post-translational modifications. In this study, we developed an MRM assay to monitor the abundance ratio of the peptide containing oxidized M148 to the native peptide in Apo A-I. Measurement of the oxidized-to-unoxidized-M148 ratio was reproducible (CV<5%). The extent of methionine M148 oxidation in the HDL of healthy controls, and type 2 diabetic participants with and without prior cardiovascular events (CVD) were then examined. The results suggest a significant increase in the relative ratio of the peptide containing oxidized M148 to the unmodified peptide in the HDL of participants with diabetes and CVD (p<0.001), compared to participants without CVD. Monitoring the abundance ratio of the peptides containing oxidized and unoxidized M148 by MRM provides a means of examining the relationship between M148 oxidation and vascular complications in CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussein N Yassine
- Department of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Angela M Jackson
- University of Victoria - Genome British Columbia Proteomics Centre, Victoria, BC
| | | | | | | | - Serrine S Lau
- Southwest Environmental Health Sciences Center, Tucson, AZ
| | - Christoph H Borchers
- University of Victoria - Genome British Columbia Proteomics Centre, Victoria, BC ; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC
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