Comparative response to UV irradiation of cytoskeletal elements in rabbit and skate lens epithelial cells

Quantum mechanism of light transmission by the intermediate filaments in some specialized optically transparent cells

Some very transparent cells in the optical tract of vertebrates, such as the lens fiber cells, possess certain types of specialized intermediate filaments (IFs) that have essential significance for their transparency. The exact mechanism describing why the IFs are so important for transparency is unknown. Recently, transparency was described also in the retinal Müller cells (MCs). We report that the main processes of the MCs contain bundles of long specialized IFs, each about 10 nm in diameter; most likely, these filaments are the channels providing light transmission to the photoreceptor cells in mammalian and avian retinas. We interpret the transmission of light in such channels using the notions of quantum confinement, describing energy transport in structures with electroconductive walls and diameter much smaller than the wavelength of the respective photons. Model calculations produce photon transmission efficiency in such channels exceeding 0.8, in optimized geometry. We infer that protein molecules make up the channels, proposing a qualitative mechanism of light transmission by such structures. The developed model may be used to describe light transmission by the IFs in any transparent cells.

Foveolar Müller Cells of the Pied Flycatcher: Morphology and Distribution of Intermediate Filaments Regarding Cell Transparency

Specialized intermediate filaments (IFs) have critical importance for the clearness and uncommon transparency of vertebrate lens fiber cells, although the physical mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Recently, an unusual low-scattering light transport was also described in retinal Müller cells. Exploring the function of IFs in Müller cells, we have studied the morphology and distribution pattern of IFs and other cytoskeletal filaments inside the Müller cell main processes in the foveolar part of the avian (pied flycatcher) retina. We found that some IFs surrounded by globular nanoparticles (that we suggest are crystallines) are present in almost every part of the Müller cells that span the retina, including the microvilli. Unlike IFs implicated in the mechanical architecture of the cell, these IFs are not connected to any specific cellular membranes. Instead, they are organized into bundles, passing inside the cell from the endfeet to the photoreceptor, following the geometry of the processes, and repeatedly circumventing numerous obstacles. We believe that the presently reported data effectively confirm that the model of nanooptical channels built of the IFs may provide a viable explanation of Müller cell transparency.

UVB radiation variably affects n-3 fatty acids but elevated temperature reduces n-3 fatty acids in juvenile Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)

Temperature and ultraviolet B radiation (UVB 290-320 nm) are inextricably linked to global climate change. These two variables may act separately, additively, or synergistically on specific aspects of fish biochemistry. We raised Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) parr for 54 days in outdoor tanks held at 12 and 19 °C and, at each temperature, we exposed them to three spectral treatments differing in UV radiation intensity. We quantified individual fatty acid (FA) mass fractions in four tissues (dorsal muscle, dorsal and ventral skin, and ocular tissue) at each temperature × UV combination. FA composition of dorsal muscle and dorsal and ventral skin was not affected by UV exposure. Mass fractions of 16:0, 18:0, and saturated fatty acids (SFA) were greater in dorsal muscle of warm-reared fish whereas 18:3n-3, 20:2, 20:4n-6, 22:5n-3, 22:6n-3, n-3, n-6, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and total FA were significantly higher in cold-reared fish. Mass fractions of most of the FA were greater in the dorsal and ventral skin of warm-reared fish. Cold-reared salmon exposed to enhanced UVB had higher ocular tissue mass fractions of 20:2, 20:4n-6, 22:6n-3, n-3, n-6, and PUFA compared to fish in which UV had been removed. These observations forecast a host of ensuing physiological and ecological responses of juvenile Atlantic Salmon to increasing temperatures and UVB levels in native streams and rivers where they mature before smolting and returning to the sea.

Cell and molecular biology of the spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias and little skate Leucoraja erinacea: insights from in vitro cultured cells

Two of the most commonly used elasmobranch experimental model species are the spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias and the little skate Leucoraja erinacea. Comparative biology and genomics with these species have provided useful information in physiology, pharmacology, toxicology, immunology, evolutionary developmental biology and genetics. A wealth of information has been obtained using in vitro approaches to study isolated cells and tissues from these organisms under circumstances in which the extracellular environment can be controlled. In addition to classical work with primary cell cultures, continuously proliferating cell lines have been derived recently, representing the first cell lines from cartilaginous fishes. These lines have proved to be valuable tools with which to explore functional genomic and biological questions and to test hypotheses at the molecular level. In genomic experiments, complementary (c)DNA libraries have been constructed, and c. 8000 unique transcripts identified, with over 3000 representing previously unknown gene sequences. A sub-set of messenger (m)RNAs has been detected for which the 3' untranslated regions show elements that are remarkably well conserved evolutionarily, representing novel, potentially regulatory gene sequences. The cell culture systems provide physiologically valid tools to study functional roles of these sequences and other aspects of elasmobranch molecular cell biology and physiology. Information derived from the use of in vitro cell cultures is valuable in revealing gene diversity and information for genomic sequence assembly, as well as for identification of new genes and molecular markers, construction of gene-array probes and acquisition of full-length cDNA sequences.

Green tea catechins and their oxidative protection in the rat eye

Catechins, active constituents of green tea, are well-known antioxidative natural products. It was proposed that green tea extract (GTE) consumption could benefit the eye, and the pharmacokinetics of catechins and oxidation status in rat eye were investigated after oral administration. Sprague-Dawley rats were fed GTE and sacrificed at different time intervals. Their eyes were dissected into cornea, lens, retina, choroid-sclera, vitreous humor, and aqueous humor for analysis of catechins and 8-epi-isoprostane by HPLC-ECD and GC-NCI-MS, respectively. Catechins were differentially distributed in eye tissues. Gallocatechin was present at the highest concentration in the retina, 22729.4 +/- 4229.4 pmol/g, and epigallocatechin in aqueous humor at 602.9 +/- 116.7 nM. The corresponding area-under-curves were 207,000 pmol x h/g and 2035.0 +/- 531.7 nM x h, respectively. The time of maximum concentration of the catechins varied from 0.5 to 12.2 h. Significant reductions in 8-epi-isoprostane levels were found in the compartments except the choroid-sclera or plasma, indicating antioxidative activities of catechins in these tissues.

Irreversible UV inactivation of Cryptosporidium spp. despite the presence of UV repair genes

Ultraviolet light is being considered as a disinfectant by the water industry because it appears to be very effective for inactivating pathogens, including Cryptosporidium parvum. However, many organisms have mechanisms for repairing ultraviolet light-induced DNA damage, which may limit the utility of this disinfection technology. Inactivation of C. parvum was assessed by measuring infectivity in cells of the human ileocecal adenocarcinoma HCT-8 cell line, with an assay targeting a heat shock protein gene and using a reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction to detect infections. Oocysts of five different isolates displayed similar sensitivity to ultraviolet light. An average dosage of 7.6 mJ/cm2 resulted in 99.9% inactivation, providing the first evidence that multiple isolates of C. parvum are equally sensitive to ultraviolet disinfection. Irradiated oocysts were unable to regain pre-irradiation levels of infectivity, following exposure to a broad array of potential repair conditions, such as prolonged incubation, pre-infection excystation triggers, and post-ultraviolet holding periods. A combination of data-mining and sequencing was used to identify genes for all of the major components of a nucleotide excision repair complex in C. parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis. The average similarity between the two organisms for the various genes was 96.4% (range, 92-98%). Thus, while Cryptosporidum spp. may have the potential to repair ultraviolet light-induced damage, oocyst reactivation will not occur under the standard conditions used for storage and distribution of treated drinking water.

Effects of UV-A irradiation on lens morphology and optics

Epidemiological studies have indicated that ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is one of the main factors leading to senile cataract formation. We investigated morphological changes in the eye lens caused by UVR-A. Twenty three pairs of lenses obtained from 23 one-year-old calves were used for this study. For each pair, one lens was exposed to 44 J/m(2) UVR in the 365 nm wavelength region while the contralateral lens was not exposed and served as a control. The lenses were placed in specially designed organ culture containers for pre-incubation. Lenses were exposed to UVR after one day in culture. After irradiation, lens optical quality was monitored throughout additional 15 days of the culture period and lenses were taken for morphological analysis by scanning electron microscopy. Damage to lens optical quality was evident as early as day 8 after the irradiation and increased with time in culture. We found irregularity of fiber morphology in lenses exposed to UV-A irradiation (but not in control lenses), similar to that reported previously for aged lenses. At the end of the culture period (day 16), lens fiber membranes also showed holes in fiber membranes. We conclude that UVR-A caused damage to cell membranes of the lens and alterations in lens optics, which may subsequently lead to senile cataract formation.

Ultraviolet A radiation transiently disrupts gap junctional communication in human keratinocytes

Ultraviolet A (UVA) (320-400 nm) radiation is known to cause cutaneous aging and skin cancer. We studied the effect of UVA (365 nm) radiation on the human epidermis by focusing on keratinocyte gap junction-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC). We observed a dose-dependent 10-fold decrease in GJIC induced by UVA in normal human keratinocytes. This decrease in GJIC was associated with time-dependent internalization of connexin43 (Cx43). UVA radiation also damaged the actin cytoskeleton, as shown by microfilament disappearance. Importantly, the decrease in GJIC was transient when keratinocytes were irradiated with 10 J/cm(2) UVA, with a return to baseline values after 8 h. Concomitantly, Cx43 was relocalized and the actin cytoskeleton was restored. UVA irradiation and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) treatment activated protein kinase C and reduced GJIC. However, Cx43 localization and phosphorylation were differently regulated by the two treatments. This suggests that at least two different pathways may mediate the observed fall in GJIC. These findings identify keratinocyte GJIC as a new UVA target that might sensitize human skin to photoaging and cancer formation.

The R116C mutation in alpha A-crystallin diminishes its protective ability against stress-induced lens epithelial cell apoptosis

alphaA-crystallin is a small heat-shock protein expressed preferentially in the lens and is detected during the early stages of lens development. Recent work indicates that the expression of alphaA-crystallin enhances lens epithelial cell growth and resistance to stress conditions. Mutation of the arginine 116 residue to cysteine (R116C) in alphaA-crystallin has been associated with congenital cataracts in humans. However, the physiological consequences of this mutation have not been analyzed in lens epithelial cells. In the present study, we expressed wild type or R116C alphaA-crystallin in the human lens epithelial cell line HLE B-3. Immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy indicated that both wild type and R116C alphaA-crystallin were distributed mainly in the cytoplasm of lens epithelial cells. Size-exclusion chromatography indicated that the size of the alphaA-crystallin aggregate in lens epithelial cells increased from 500 to 600 kDa for the wild type protein to >2 MDa in the R116C mutant. When cells were exposed to physiological levels of UVA radiation, wild type alphaA-crystallin protected cells from apoptotic death as shown by annexin labeling and flow cytometric analysis, whereas the R116C mutant had a 4- to 10-fold lower protective ability. UVA-irradiated cells expressing the wild type protein had very low TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling) staining, whereas cells expressing R116C mutant had a high level of TUNEL staining. F-actin was protected in UVA-treated cells expressing the wild type alphaA-crystallin but was either clumped around the apoptotic cells or was absent in apoptotic cells in cultures expressing the R116C mutant. Structural changes caused by the R116C mutation could be responsible for the reduced ability of the mutant to protect cells from stress. Our study shows that comparing the stress-induced apoptotic cell death is an effective way to compare the protective abilities of wild type and mutant alphaA-crystallin. We propose that the diminished protective ability of the R116C mutant in lens epithelial cells may contribute to the pathogenesis of cataract.

Multidrug resistance in tumour cells: characterization of the multidrug resistant cell line K562-Lucena 1

Multidrug resistance to chemotherapy is a major obstacle in the treatment of cancer patients. The best characterised mechanism responsible for multidrug resistance involves the expression of the MDR-1 gene product, P-glycoprotein. However, the resistance process is multifactorial. Studies of multidrug resistance mechanisms have relied on the analysis of cancer cell lines that have been selected and present cross-reactivity to a broad range of anticancer agents. This work characterises a multidrug resistant cell line, originally selected for resistance to the Vinca alkaloid vincristine and derived from the human erythroleukaemia cell K562. This cell line, named Lucena 1, overexpresses P-glycoprotein and have its resistance reversed by the chemosensitisers verapamil, trifluoperazine and cyclosporins A, D and G. Furthermore, we demonstrated that methylene blue was capable of partially reversing the resistance in this cell line. On the contrary, the use of 5-fluorouracil increased the resistance of Lucena 1. In addition to chemotherapics, Lucena 1 cells were resistant to ultraviolet A radiation and hydrogen peroxide and failed to mobilise intracellular calcium when thapsigargin was used. Changes in the cytoskeleton of this cell line were also observed.

UV-A-related alterations of young and adult lens water-insoluble alpha-crystallin, plasma membranous and cytoskeletal proteins

The damaging effects of UV-A irradiation on lens water-insoluble alpha-crystallin, plasma membranous and cytoskeletal proteins derived from bovine lenses were studied. Young and adult bovine lenses were kept viable for 2 months in organ culture. After 24 h of incubation they were irradiated, and analyses of the proteins by one-dimensional and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by Western blotting were carried out at several time intervals. RNA isolation, PCR and Northern blotting were also performed. We identified age-related changes in water-insoluble alpha-crystallin, the major membrane protein MP26 and the cytoskeletal proteins vimentin, phakinin and actin between control and UV-irradiated lenses. It appeared that adult lenses are more susceptible to UV light than young lenses, and protein modification occurred more frequently in adult lenses. UV-A irradiation affects not only the cytoskeletal structure, as deduced by the abnormal arrangement of actin in the fiber cells, but also leads to degradation of actin mRNA. Furthermore, analysis of the expression of hsp25 and hsp70 revealed some alteration in the protein pattern of adult lenses. We suggest that degradation of the cytoskeletal proteins following irradiation is due to, at least in part, the decreased protective ability of heat shock proteins upon aging.

Radiation response of cell organelles

The cellular responses to various form of radiation, including ionizing- and UV-irradiation or exposure to electromagnetic fields is manifested as irreversible and reversible structural and functional changes to cells and cell organelles. Moreover, beside the morphological signs related to cell death, there are several reversible alterations in the structure of different cell organelles. The radiation-induced changes in the supramolecular organization of the membranes, including plasma membrane, and different cell organelle membranes, play a significant role in the development of acute radiation injury. These signs of radiation-induced reversible perturbation biological membranes reflect changes in the organization and/or composition of the glycocalix, modified activity and/or distribution of different membrane domains, including enzymes and binding sites. The observed changes of the cell surface micromorphology and the alteration of intercellular connections are closely related to the reorganization of the cytoskeletal elements in the irradiated cells. The mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi-complex, the lysosomal system have long been considered to be direct intracellular targets of irradiation. The listed morphological alterations of nuclear chromatin (e.g. changes of fine structure, altered number of nucleolar organizing regions and micronuclei, development of chromosome aberrations) may originate from the radiation-induced damage to the supramolecular organization of DNA and/or nucleus specific proteins. These endpoints of radiation effects resulted as direct consequence(s) of absorbed radiation energy, and indirectly altered intra-, intercellular communication or modified signal transduction. Some complementary data suggest that all these effects are not strictly specific to radiation and may be best considered as general stress responses, similar to those observed after application of various injurious agents and treatments to cells. Moreover, they may be equally responsible for direct degradation of supramolecular component of cells, altered signal transduction, or changes in the amount or ratio of any extracellular mediators upon irradiation. Nevertheless, qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of any changes of chromosomes by different techniques (morphological analysis of metaphase chromosomes, fluorescent in situ hybridization, development of micronuclei etc.) are useful biological indicators as well as "biological dosimeters" of radiation injury. It is suggested, that some modern methods such as immunohistochemical detection of different proteins, specific markers of cell organelles and cytoskeleton, inspection of distribution of cell surface charged sites and different membrane domains and application of tracer substances may all be included into protocols for evaluation of cell alterations induced by different types and intensities of radiation.

The influence of UV radiation on protistan evolution

Ultraviolet radiation has provided an evolutionary challenge to life on Earth. Recent increases in surficial ultraviolet B fluxes have focused attention on the role of UV radiation in protistan ecology, cancer, and DNA damage. Exploiting this new wealth of data, I examine the possibility that ultraviolet radiation may have played a significant role in the evolution of the first eukaryotes, that is, protists. Protists probably arose well before the formation of a significant ozone shield, and thus were probably subjected to substantial ultraviolet A, ultraviolet B, and ultraviolet C fluxes early in their evolution. Evolution consists of the generation of heritable variations and the subsequent selection of these variants. Ultraviolet radiation has played a role both as a mutagen and as a selective agent. In its role as a mutagen, it may have been crucial in the origin of sex and as a driver of molecular evolution. As a selective agent, its influence has been broad. Discussed in this paper are the influence of ultraviolet radiation on biogeography, photosynthesis, and desiccation resistance.

Lens cytoskeleton and transparency: a model

The function of the cytoskeleton in lens was first considered when cytoplasmic microtubules were observed in elongating fibre cells of the chick lens nearly 40 years ago. Since that time, tubulin, actin, vimentin and intermediate filaments have been identified and found to function in mitosis, motility and cellular morphology during lens cell differentiation. A role for the cytoskeleton in accommodation has been proposed and modification of the cytoskeletal proteins has been observed in several cataract models. Recently, a progressive increase in protein aggregation and lens opacification was found to correspond with the loss of cytoskeletal protein in the selenite model for cataract. In the present report a model is proposed for the role of tubulin, actin, vimentin, spectrin and the lens-specific filaments, filensin and CP49, in the establishment and maintenance of transparent lens cell structure.

Polarity influences the efficiency of recombinant adenoassociated virus infection in differentiated airway epithelia

To better understand mechanisms that limit rAAV transduction in the lung, we have evaluated several unique features of rAAV infection in polarized primary airway epithelial cultures. rAAV was found to transduce the basolateral surface of airway epithelia 200-fold more efficiently than the apical membrane. These differences in membrane infection correlated with the abundance of apical heparan sulfate proteoglycan (AAV-2 receptor) and virus binding. UV irradiation augmented rAAV transduction greater than 20-fold, only when virus was applied to the apical membrane. Ultrastructural analysis of UV-irradiated primary cultures demonstrated significant changes in microvilli architecture following exposure to 25 J/m2 UV. Although virus binding and the abundance of heparan sulfate proteoglycan were not increased at the apical membrane following UV irradiation, increased receptor-independent endocytosis of fluorescent beads was seen at the apical membrane following UV irradiation. We hypothesize that endocytotic processes associated with apical membrane-specific pathways of viral entry, and/or processing of virus to the nucleus, may be altered following UV irradiation. Interestingly, UV irradiation had an inhibitory effect on rAAV transduction from the basolateral membrane, which correlated with a decrease in the abundance of heparan sulfate proteoglycan at the basal membrane. In summary, these findings suggest that independent pathways of viral transduction may occur in the apical and basolateral compartments of polarized airway epithelia.