Breast and torso characteristics of female contact football players: implications for the design of sports bras and breast protection

Can thoraco-abdominal organ boundaries be accurately determined from X-ray and anthropometric surface scans? Implications for body armour system coverage and design

To optimise soldier protection within body armour systems, knowledge of the boundaries of essential thoraco-abdominal organs is necessary to inform coverage requirements. However, existing methods of organ boundary identification are costly and time consuming, limiting widespread adoption for use on soldier populations. The aim of this study was to evaluate a novel method of using 3D organ models to identify essential organ boundaries from low dose planar X-rays and 3D external surface scans of the human torso. The results revealed that, while possible to reconstruct 3D organs using template 3D organ models placed over X-ray images, the boundary data (relating to the size and position of each organ) obtained from the reconstructed organs differed significantly from MRI organ data. The magnitude of difference varied between organs. The most accurate anatomical boundaries were the left, right, and inferior boundaries of the heart, and lateral boundaries for the liver and spleen. Visual inspection of the data demonstrated that 11 of 18 organ models were successfully integrated within the 3D space of the participant's surface scan. These results suggest that, if this method is further refined and evaluated, it has potential to be used as a tool for estimating body armour coverage requirements.

Women's rugby for all: Toward an intersectional women's rugby research agenda

Women rugby players are participating in the sport at the highest levels to date. However, despite this increase in participation, sports sciences and sports medicine/sports physiotherapy (SEMS) research output has not mirrored this increase. Females have hormonally mediated anatomical and physiological profiles, which may have implications for rugby performance, injury risk and rehabilitation outcomes. However, hormonal fluctuations and the physiological differences between the sexes are not the only contributors to sex-related differences in the rugby experience. Rugby is a highly gendered environment, which operates within a hegemonic masculine norm and marginalises female and women athletes. Further, while women players in general are underrepresented in sports sciences and SEMS research, women rugby players and experts from ethnic minorities and the Global South are near invisible in the literature as they are marginalised on multiple fronts. Sports sciences and SEMS research should take an intersectional lens to investigate the joint relationship between the various sources of inequity in rugby. Intersectional research in women rugby players would encourage the conceptualisation and analysis of the complex social inequalities that the most marginalised women players and those who simultaneously negotiate multiple identities experience. Such data can better inform federation-level interventions and policy changes to address the needs of historically marginalised player populations as our research portfolio will be more representative of the world's rugby population.

A multi-stage intervention assessing, advising and customising sports bras for elite female British athletes

Appropriate breast support is recommended in sport; however, what constitutes appropriate support is complex, individual and often sports specific, particularly in elite sport given the wear duration. This intervention educated, assessed and advised elite British female athletes on breasts and bras; those with unresolved issues engaged in bespoke bra interventions. Following educational workshops (n = 80), breast/bra surveys (n = 60), individual bra assessments (n = 37); a rower, shooter, and hockey player participated in the bespoke bra intervention. Eighty-three per cent of athletes rated their breast/bra knowledge as ≤average. Fifty-one per cent experienced breast pain, affecting performance for 29%; seven used medication and one surgery to relieve symptoms. In individual bra assessments most wore ill-fitting, unsupportive bras and wanted bra advice. Bespoke bra interventions eliminated breast pain: for the rower, improved breast position and spine rotation; for the shooter, repositioned tissue and improved performance; and for the hockey player, accommodated smart devices. Whilst bespoke bra development is challenging, most elite athlete breast/bra issues are resolved via education, advice and fitting.

Changes to breast structure and function across a woman's lifespan: Implications for managing and modeling female breast injuries

BACKGROUND

Female breasts change throughout a woman's life in response to fluctuating hormonal influences. Individuals managing active women and those modeling female breasts must understand these structural and functional changes across a female's lifespan because these changes affect breast injuries sustained by women.

METHODS

We initially review female breast structure and function and then describe how breast structure changes across a woman's lifespan. Key studies about direct contact and frictional breast injuries are then summarized. Limitations of current breast injury research, gaps in knowledge about breast injuries incurred by specific populations, and the lack of breast injury models are also highlighted.

FINDINGS

With minimal anatomical protection, it is unsurprising that breast injuries occur. Although research about breast injuries is scant, direct contact during blunt force trauma to the anterior chest wall and frictional breast injuries have been reported. There is a lack, however, of research documenting the incidence and severity of breast injuries incurred in occupational settings and in women's sports. Therefore, to design effective breast protective equipment, we recommend research to model and investigate the mechanisms and forces involved in breast injuries, particularly injuries sustained during sport.

INTERPRETATION

This unique review summarizes how female breasts change over a woman's life span, with implications for breast injuries sustained by females. Knowledge gaps about female breast injuries are highlighted. We conclude by recommending research required to develop evidence-based strategies to improve how we classify, prevent, and clinically manage breast injuries sustained by females.

SUMMARY

We review changes to the breast across a woman's lifespan, highlighting implications for managing and modeling female breast injuries.

Effect of Torso and Breast Characteristics on the Perceived Fit of Body Armour Systems Among Female Soldiers: Implications for Body Armour Sizing and Design

This study aimed to provide normative data characterising the torsos and breasts of female soldiers and to determine which torso and breast anthropometric measurements contributed to reports of poor body armour fit. Ninety-seven female Australian Army soldiers completed a questionnaire about their experience with current-issue body armour, including perceptions of fit. Participants also attended a single testing session where we took a three-dimensional scan of their breasts and torso and collected several anthropometric measurements to characterise their torso size and shape. Sixteen of the 22 breast and torso measurements collected were significantly related to the perceived fit of current-issue body armour systems. To improve perceptions of fit for female soldiers and, in turn, reduce movement interference, discomfort, and barriers to occupational performance, future body armour systems should cater to the wide range of female breast and torso shapes and sizes.

Bra-body armour integration, breast discomfort and breast injury associated with wearing body armour

This study investigated whether female soldiers experience bra integration or breast discomfort/injuries related to body armour use and whether these issues were associated with breast size. Ninety-seven Australian Defence Force female soldiers completed a questionnaire and had their breast volume assessed (range: 91-919 ml/breast) using three-dimensional scanning. Twenty-two percent (n = 21) of participants reported integration issues between their bra and body armour, 63% (n = 61) reported breast discomfort while wearing body armour and 27% (n = 26) reported experiencing a breast injury related to wearing body armour. Although bra-body armour integration was not dependent upon breast size, female soldiers with medium-large breasts reported significantly more breast discomfort and injuries when using body armour compared to participants with small breasts. These findings highlight the importance of developing body armour systems that cater to the range of breast sizes of female soldiers in order to improve bra-body armour integration and reduce breast discomfort and injury. Practitioner summary: This exploratory research provides evidence of bra integration issues, breast discomfort and breast injury experienced by female soldiers when wearing body armour. Given the growing representation of women in military organisations, strategies to alleviate these issues for female users of body armour, particularly those with larger breast sizes, are required.

A field study investigating sensory manifestations in recreational female cyclists using a novel female-specific cycling pad

This randomised controlled field study aimed to design a female-specific cycling pad with reduced padding in the crotch area (half-pad) and test its effects on self-reported sensory manifestations in comparison with full-padded cycling bib shorts. Recreational female road cyclists (n = 183) participated (divided into two groups). Self-reported sensory manifestations were collected six times over 12 weeks. Sitting discomfort, wetness perception, thermal, texture sensation, and wear discomfort decreased over time for the crotch and sitting-bones areas in both groups. Irritation and tenderness in the crotch area also decreased over time in both groups. Irritation and tenderness in the sitting-bones area were only higher at week two in the half-pad compared with the full-pad group. Cycling with the half-padded shorts compared with the full-padded ones had no negative effects on sensory manifestations beside the observed transient change at week two. This suggests that foam thickness in the crotch area can be reduced in female-specific cycling pads. Practitioner's Summary: Road cycling might result in discomfort and non-traumatic injuries in the female genital area. This field study compares two different cycling pads; a half-pad and a full-pad, over a 12-week period among female recreational road cyclists. Reducing the foam thickness in the crotch area of the pad does not change sensory manifestations, i.e. discomfort, wetness perception, texture-, and thermal-sensation as well as wear discomfort. Abbreviations: CS-Q: online Cycling bib Shorts Questionnaire; VADER: Valence Aware Dictionary and sEntiment Reasoner.