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Wu 吴奕忱 Y, Li 李晟 S. Complexity Matters: Normalization to Prototypical Viewpoint Induces Memory Distortion along the Vertical Axis of Scenes. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e1175232024. [PMID: 38777600 PMCID: PMC11223457 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1175-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Scene memory is prone to systematic distortions potentially arising from experience with the external world. Boundary transformation, a well-known memory distortion effect along the near-far axis of the three-dimensional space, represents the observer's erroneous recall of scenes' viewing distance. Researchers argued that normalization to the prototypical viewpoint with the high-probability viewing distance influenced this phenomenon. Herein, we hypothesized that the prototypical viewpoint also exists in the vertical angle of view (AOV) dimension and could cause memory distortion along scenes' vertical axis. Human subjects of both sexes were recruited to test this hypothesis, and two behavioral experiments were conducted, revealing a systematic memory distortion in the vertical AOV in both the forced choice (n = 79) and free adjustment (n = 30) tasks. Furthermore, the regression analysis implied that the complexity information asymmetry in scenes' vertical axis and the independent subjective AOV ratings from a large set of online participants (n = 1,208) could jointly predict AOV biases. Furthermore, in a functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment (n = 24), we demonstrated the involvement of areas in the ventral visual pathway (V3/V4, PPA, and OPA) in AOV bias judgment. Additionally, in a magnetoencephalography experiment (n = 20), we could significantly decode the subjects' AOV bias judgments ∼140 ms after scene onset and the low-level visual complexity information around the similar temporal interval. These findings suggest that AOV bias is driven by the normalization process and associated with the neural activities in the early stage of scene processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yichen Wu 吴奕忱
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- National Key Laboratory of General Artificial Intelligence, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Sheng Li 李晟
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- National Key Laboratory of General Artificial Intelligence, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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2
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Matthews N, Folivi F. Omit needless words: Sentence length perception. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282146. [PMID: 36827285 PMCID: PMC9955962 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Short sentences improve readability. Short sentences also promote social justice through accessibility and inclusiveness. Despite this, much remains unknown about sentence length perception-an important factor in producing readable writing. Accordingly, we conducted a psychophysical study using procedures from Signal Detection Theory to examine sentence length perception in naive adults. Participants viewed real-world full-page text samples and judged whether a bolded target sentence contained more or fewer than 17 words. The experiment yielded four findings. First, naïve adults perceived sentence length in real-world text samples quickly (median = 300-400 ms) and precisely (median = ~90% correct). Second, flipping real-world text samples upside-down generated no reaction-time cost and nearly no loss in the precision of sentence length perception. This differs from the large inversion effects that characterize other highly practiced, real-world perceptual tasks involving canonically oriented stimuli, most notably face perception and reading. Third, participants significantly underestimated the length of mirror-reversed sentences-but not upside-down, nor standard sentences. This finding parallels participants' familiarity with commonly occurring left-justified right-ragged text, and suggests a novel demonstration of left-lateralized anchoring in scene syntax. Fourth, error patterns demonstrated that participants achieved their high speed, high precision sentence-length judgments by heuristically counting text lines, not by explicitly counting words. This suggests practical advice for writing instructors to offer students. When copy editing, students can quickly and precisely identify their long sentences via a line-counting heuristic, e.g., "a 17-word sentence spans about 1.5 text lines". Students can subsequently improve a long sentence's readability and inclusiveness by omitting needless words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nestor Matthews
- Department of Psychology, Denison University, Granville, OH, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Folly Folivi
- Department of Psychology, Denison University, Granville, OH, United States of America
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3
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Hayes TR, Henderson JM. Scene inversion reveals distinct patterns of attention to semantically interpreted and uninterpreted features. Cognition 2022; 229:105231. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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4
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Kosovicheva A, Bex PJ. Gravitational effects of scene information in object localization. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11520. [PMID: 34075169 PMCID: PMC8169838 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We effortlessly interact with objects in our environment, but how do we know where something is? An object's apparent position does not simply correspond to its retinotopic location but is influenced by its surrounding context. In the natural environment, this context is highly complex, and little is known about how visual information in a scene influences the apparent location of the objects within it. We measured the influence of local image statistics (luminance, edges, object boundaries, and saliency) on the reported location of a brief target superimposed on images of natural scenes. For each image statistic, we calculated the difference between the image value at the physical center of the target and the value at its reported center, using observers' cursor responses, and averaged the resulting values across all trials. To isolate image-specific effects, difference scores were compared to a randomly-permuted null distribution that accounted for any response biases. The observed difference scores indicated that responses were significantly biased toward darker regions, luminance edges, object boundaries, and areas of high saliency, with relatively low shared variance among these measures. In addition, we show that the same image statistics were associated with observers' saccade errors, despite large differences in response time, and that some effects persisted when high-level scene processing was disrupted by 180° rotations and color negatives of the originals. Together, these results provide evidence for landmark effects within natural images, in which feature location reports are pulled toward low- and high-level informative content in the scene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kosovicheva
- grid.17063.330000 0001 2157 2938Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6 Canada ,grid.261112.70000 0001 2173 3359Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, 125 Nightingale Hall, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Peter J. Bex
- grid.261112.70000 0001 2173 3359Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, 125 Nightingale Hall, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115 USA
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5
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Lauer T, Willenbockel V, Maffongelli L, Võ MLH. The influence of scene and object orientation on the scene consistency effect. Behav Brain Res 2020; 394:112812. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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6
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Owens JW, Chaparro BS, Palmer EM. Exploring website gist through rapid serial visual presentation. COGNITIVE RESEARCH-PRINCIPLES AND IMPLICATIONS 2019; 4:44. [PMID: 31748970 PMCID: PMC6868081 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-019-0192-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Background Users can make judgments about web pages in a glance. Little research has explored what semantic information can be extracted from a web page within a single fixation or what mental representations users have of web pages, but the scene perception literature provides a framework for understanding how viewers can extract and represent diverse semantic information from scenes in a glance. The purpose of this research was (1) to explore whether semantic information about a web page could be extracted within a single fixation and (2) to explore the effects of size and resolution on extracting this information. Using a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm, Experiment 1 explored whether certain semantic categories of websites (i.e., news, search, shopping, and social networks/blogs) could be detected within a RSVP stream of web page stimuli. Natural scenes, which have been shown to be detectable within a single fixation in the literature, served as a baseline for comparison. Experiment 2 examined the effects of stimulus size and resolution on observers’ ability to detect the presence of website categories using similar methods. Results Findings from this research demonstrate that users have conceptual models of websites that allow detection of web pages from a fixation’s worth of stimulus exposure, when provided additional time for processing. For website categories other than search, detection performance decreased significantly when web elements were no longer discernible due to decreases in size and/or resolution. The implications of this research are that website conceptual models rely more on page elements and less on the spatial relationship between these elements. Conclusions Participants can detect websites accurately when they were displayed for less than a fixation and when the participants were allowed additional processing time. Subjective comments and stimulus onset asynchrony data suggested that participants likely relied on local features for the detection of website targets for several website categories. This notion was supported when the size and/or resolution of stimuli were decreased to the extent that web elements were indistinguishable. This demonstrates that schemas or conceptualizations of websites provided information sufficient to detect websites from approximately 140 ms of stimulus exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin W Owens
- Department of Psychology, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA.,Google, Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA
| | - Barbara S Chaparro
- Department of Psychology, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA.,Department of Human Factors and Behavioral Neurobiology, Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL, USA
| | - Evan M Palmer
- Department of Psychology, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA. .,Department of Psychology, San José State University, San Jose, CA, USA.
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7
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Nishimura N, Uchimura M, Kitazawa S. Automatic encoding of a target position relative to a natural scene. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:1849-1860. [PMID: 31509471 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00032.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that the brain automatically represents a target position for reaching relative to a large square in the background. In the present study, we tested whether a natural scene with many complex details serves as an effective background for representing a target. In the first experiment, we used upright and inverted pictures of a natural scene. A shift of pictures significantly attenuated prism adaptation of reaching movements as long as they were upright. In one-third of participants, adaptation was almost completely cancelled whether the pictures were upright or inverted. It was remarkable that there were two distinct groups of participants, one who relies fully on the allocentric coordinate and the other who depended only when the scene was upright. In the second experiment, we examined how long it takes for a novel upright scene to serve as a background. A shift of the novel scene had no significant effects when it was presented for 500 ms before presenting a target, but significant effects were recovered when presented for 1,500 ms. These results show that a natural scene serves as a background against which a target is automatically represented once we spend 1,500 ms in the scene.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Prism adaptation of reaching was attenuated by a shift of natural scenes as long as they were upright. In one-third of participants, adaptation was fully canceled whether the scene was upright or inverted. When an upright scene was novel, it took 1,500 ms to prepare the scene for allocentric coding. These results show that a natural scene serves as a background against which a target is automatically represented once we spend 1,500 ms in the scene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobuyuki Nishimura
- Department of Anesthesiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Motoaki Uchimura
- Dynamic Brain Network Laboratory, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kitazawa
- Dynamic Brain Network Laboratory, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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8
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Tablet computer games to measure dorsal stream performance in good and poor readers. Neuropsychologia 2018; 130:92-99. [PMID: 30030193 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Evidence suggests a link between deficits in visuo-spatial attention, and subsequent reading ability. However, all the research in the area thus far has been conducted using traditional, lab-based psychophysics, with very tightly controlled visual parameters. In order to take this research further, such as using visuo-spatial tasks for remediation purposes, it must be established that such tasks can be taken out of the laboratory, 'gamified', and still predict reading ability. This study aimed to determine if subtle visual deficits in poor readers could be detected outside a traditional laboratory, in relatively uncontrolled settings using portable game-like technology. Classic visual search and change detection programs, thought to rely on the visual dorsal stream, were modified to a game-like format. They were administered on a portable computer tablet within the participants' school setting. Whilst IQ predicted reading rate, visuo-spatial tasks such as visual search speed, and change detection, each accounted for unique variance in reading rate over and above IQ, age and phonological ability. These results are consistent with the visuo-spatial attention deficit hypothesis, and provide support for the development of portable computerised games that may assess and potentially target this deficit in poor readers.
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9
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Effects of canonical color, luminance, and orientation on sustained inattentional blindness for scenes. Atten Percept Psychophys 2018; 80:1833-1846. [PMID: 29987532 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-018-1558-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Whether scene gist perception occurs automatically and unconsciously has been the subject of much debate. In addition to demonstrating a new method that adapts the Mack and Rock (1998) inattentional blindness cross procedure to allow for sustained inattentional blindness over a large number of trials, we report evidence from a series of experiments that shows that canonical scene features reduce inattentional blindness to scenes by facilitating the extraction of scene gist. When attentional demands are high, the combination of canonical color, canonical luminance, and canonical orientation reduces rates of inattentional blindness. However, when attentional demands are reduced, canonical features are independently sufficient to facilitate gist extraction and to capture attention. These results demonstrate that canonical color, canonical luminance, and canonical orientation all contribute to scene gist perception, and that when attentional demands are high, only highly canonical stimuli are sufficient to capture attention.
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10
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Hochhauser M, Aran A, Grynszpan O. How Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Spontaneously Attend to Real-World Scenes: Use of a Change Blindness Paradigm. J Autism Dev Disord 2018; 48:502-510. [DOI: 10.1007/s10803-017-3343-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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11
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Zuiderbaan W, van Leeuwen J, Dumoulin SO. Change Blindness Is Influenced by Both Contrast Energy and Subjective Importance within Local Regions of the Image. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1718. [PMID: 29046655 PMCID: PMC5632668 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Our visual system receives an enormous amount of information, but not all information is retained. This is exemplified by the fact that subjects fail to detect large changes in a visual scene, i.e., change-blindness. Current theories propose that our ability to detect these changes is influenced by the gist or interpretation of an image. On the other hand, stimulus-driven image features such as contrast energy dominate the representation in early visual cortex (De Valois and De Valois, 1988; Boynton et al., 1999; Olman et al., 2004; Mante and Carandini, 2005; Dumoulin et al., 2008). Here we investigated whether contrast energy contributes to our ability to detect changes within a visual scene. We compared the ability to detect changes in contrast energy together with changes to a measure of the interpretation of an image. We used subjective important aspects of the image as a measure of the interpretation of an image. We measured reaction times while manipulating the contrast energy and subjective important properties using the change blindness paradigm. Our results suggest that our ability to detect changes in a visual scene is not only influenced by the subjective importance, but also by contrast energy. Also, we find that contrast energy and subjective importance interact. We speculate that contrast energy and subjective important properties are not independently represented in the visual system. Thus, our results suggest that the information that is retained of a visual scene is both influenced by stimulus-driven information as well as the interpretation of a scene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wietske Zuiderbaan
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jonathan van Leeuwen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.,Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Serge O Dumoulin
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.,Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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12
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Vanmarcke S, Noens I, Steyaert J, Wagemans J. Change detection of meaningful objects in real-world scenes in adolescents with and without autism spectrum disorder. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2017; 22:728-739. [PMID: 28686039 DOI: 10.1177/1362361317702559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Previous research suggested that adolescents with autism spectrum disorder are better than typically developing children in detecting local, non-social details within complex visual scenes. To better understand these differences, we used the image database by Sareen et al., containing the size and on-screen location information of all changes in the images, in a change blindness paradigm. In this task, an original and a modified real-world scene, separated by a gray blank, alternate repeatedly until observers detect the change. Our results indicated that participants with and without autism spectrum disorder performed similarly when scenes were presented upright, but that only the performance of the typically developing adolescents became worse in the inverted scene condition. In this condition, the correlation between performance and both image difficulty and change predictability was significantly weaker in autism spectrum disorder than in typically developing participants. We suggest that these findings result from a more locally biased search strategy in people with autism spectrum disorder, compared to typically developing participants, in tasks in which the rapid processing of global information does not help to improve change detection performance. Finally, although we found change location, change size, and age to influence participant performance, none of these was directly linked to the observed group-level differences.
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13
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Tünnermann J, Krüger A, Scharlau I. Measuring Attention and Visual Processing Speed by Model-based Analysis of Temporal-order Judgments. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 28190075 DOI: 10.3791/54856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This protocol describes how to conduct temporal-order experiments to measure visual processing speed and the attentional resource distribution. The proposed method is based on a new and synergistic combination of three components: the temporal-order judgments (TOJ) paradigm, Bundesen's Theory of Visual Attention (TVA), and a hierarchical Bayesian estimation framework. The method provides readily interpretable parameters, which are supported by the theoretical and neurophysiological underpinnings of TVA. Using TOJs, TVA-based estimates can be obtained for a broad range of stimuli, whereas traditional paradigms used with TVA are mainly limited to letters and digits. Finally, the meaningful parameters of the proposed model allow for the establishment of a hierarchical Bayesian model. Such a statistical model allows assessing results in one coherent analysis both on the subject and the group level. To demonstrate the feasibility and versatility of this new approach, three experiments are reported with attention manipulations in synthetic pop-out displays, natural images, and a cued letter-report paradigm.
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14
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15
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Beighley S, Intraub H. Does inversion affect boundary extension for briefly-presented views? VISUAL COGNITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2016.1229369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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16
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Aggelopoulos NC. Perceptual inference. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 55:375-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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17
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Affordance Estimation Enhances Artificial Visual Attention: Evidence from a Change-Blindness Study. Cognit Comput 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s12559-015-9329-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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18
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Gayet S, Van der Stigchel S, Paffen CLE. Breaking continuous flash suppression: competing for consciousness on the pre-semantic battlefield. Front Psychol 2014; 5:460. [PMID: 24904476 PMCID: PMC4033185 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, interocular suppression is believed to disrupt high-level (i.e., semantic or conceptual) processing of the suppressed visual input. The development of a new experimental paradigm, breaking continuous flash suppression (b-CFS), has caused a resurgence of studies demonstrating high-level processing of visual information in the absence of visual awareness. In this method the time it takes for interocularly suppressed stimuli to breach the threshold of visibility, is regarded as a measure of access to awareness. The aim of the current review is twofold. First, we provide an overview of the literature using this b-CFS method, while making a distinction between two types of studies: those in which suppression durations are compared between different stimulus classes (such as upright faces versus inverted faces), and those in which suppression durations are compared for stimuli that either match or mismatch concurrently available information (such as a colored target that either matches or mismatches a color retained in working memory). Second, we aim at dissociating high-level processing from low-level (i.e., crude visual) processing of the suppressed stimuli. For this purpose, we include a thorough review of the control conditions that are used in these experiments. Additionally, we provide recommendations for proper control conditions that we deem crucial for disentangling high-level from low-level effects. Based on this review, we argue that crude visual processing suffices for explaining differences in breakthrough times reported using b-CFS. As such, we conclude that there is as yet no reason to assume that interocularly suppressed stimuli receive full semantic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surya Gayet
- Experimental Psychology, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
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19
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Tovey M, Herdman CM. Seeing changes: How familiarity alters our perception of change. VISUAL COGNITION 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2014.894167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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20
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Wong YK, Twedt E, Sheinberg D, Gauthier I. Does Thompson's Thatcher Effect reflect a face-specific mechanism? Perception 2010; 39:1125-41. [PMID: 20942363 DOI: 10.1068/p6659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The Thatcher Illusion or Thatcher Effect (TE--Thompson 1980, Perception 9 483-484) reflects the difficulty in perceiving the local inversion of parts when the whole object, generally a face, is globally inverted. We tested the generality of the TE with a range of faces and nonface objects, and observed the TE with many non-face categories including cars, buildings, bikes, and letter strings. In terms of magnitude, the face TE is not exceptionally large compared to other object categories, and the magnitude of the TE can be predicted by performance on this task for upright stimuli, regardless of whether the object is a face or not. We did not observe evidence for a unique mechanism contributing to the TE for faces. We discuss factors that influence the magnitude of the TE, some common across domains and others more specific to a particular category.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yetta K Wong
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203, USA;
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21
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Zimmermann E, Schnier F, Lappe M. The contribution of scene context on change detection performance. Vision Res 2010; 50:2062-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2009] [Revised: 04/04/2010] [Accepted: 07/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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22
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Relevance ratings and salience categorizations for objects in a set of 80 pictures. Behav Res Methods 2010; 42:438-51. [DOI: 10.3758/brm.42.2.438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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23
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Berberian B, Chambaron-Ginhac S, Cleeremans A. Action blindness in response to gradual changes. Conscious Cogn 2010; 19:152-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2009] [Revised: 01/04/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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24
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Ames C, Fletcher-Watson S. A review of methods in the study of attention in autism. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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25
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La représentation des scènes visuelles en mémoire : les apports de la cécité au changement. ANNEE PSYCHOLOGIQUE 2009. [DOI: 10.4074/s0003503307003053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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26
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Fletcher-Watson S, Collis JM, Findlay JM, Leekam SR. The development of change blindness: children's attentional priorities whilst viewing naturalistic scenes. Dev Sci 2009; 12:438-45. [PMID: 19371368 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00784.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Theories of objects recognition, scene perception, and neural representation of scenes imply that jumbling a coherent scene should reduce change detection. However, evidence from the change detection literature questions whether jumbling affects change detection. The experiments reported here demonstrate that jumbling does, in fact, reduce change detection. In Experiments 1 and 2, change detection was better for normal scenes than for jumbled scenes. In Experiment 3, inversion failed to interfere with change detection, demonstrating that the disruption of surface and object continuity inherent to jumbling is responsible for reduced change detection. These findings provide a crucial commonality between change detection research and theories of scene perception and neural representation. We also discuss why previous research may have failed to find effects of jumbling.
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Burack JA, Joseph S, Russo N, Shore DI, Porporino M, Enns JT. Change Detection in Naturalistic Pictures Among Children with Autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2008; 39:471-9. [PMID: 18807162 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-008-0647-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2007] [Accepted: 08/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Burack
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, 3700 McTavish Street, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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New J, Cosmides L, Tooby J. Category-specific attention for animals reflects ancestral priorities, not expertise. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:16598-603. [PMID: 17909181 PMCID: PMC2034212 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0703913104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual attention mechanisms are known to select information to process based on current goals, personal relevance, and lower-level features. Here we present evidence that human visual attention also includes a high-level category-specialized system that monitors animals in an ongoing manner. Exposed to alternations between complex natural scenes and duplicates with a single change (a change-detection paradigm), subjects are substantially faster and more accurate at detecting changes in animals relative to changes in all tested categories of inanimate objects, even vehicles, which they have been trained for years to monitor for sudden life-or-death changes in trajectory. This animate monitoring bias could not be accounted for by differences in lower-level visual characteristics, how interesting the target objects were, experience, or expertise, implicating mechanisms that evolved to direct attention differentially to objects by virtue of their membership in ancestrally important categories, regardless of their current utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua New
- Center for Evolutionary Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
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30
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Lee YC, Lee JD, Boyle LN. Visual attention in driving: the effects of cognitive load and visual disruption. HUMAN FACTORS 2007; 49:721-33. [PMID: 17702223 DOI: 10.1518/001872007x215791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study investigates the effect of cognitive load on guidance of visual attention. BACKGROUND Previous studies have shown that cognitive load can undermine driving performance, particularly drivers' ability to detect safety-critical events. Cognitive load combined with the loss of exogenous cues, which can occur when the driver briefly glances away from the roadway, may be particularly detrimental. METHOD In each of two experiments, twelve participants engaged in an auditory task while performing a change detection task. A change blindness paradigm was implemented to mask exogenous cues by periodically blanking the screen in a driving simulator while a change occurred. Performance measures included participants' sensitivity to vehicle changes and confidence in detecting them. RESULTS Cognitive load uniformly diminished participants' sensitivity and confidence, independent of safety relevance or lack of exogenous cues. Periodic blanking, which simulated glances away from the road-way, undermined change detection to a greater degree than did cognitive load; however, drivers' confidence in their ability to detect changes was diminished more by cognitive load than by periodic blanking. CONCLUSION Cognitive load and short glances away from the road are additive in their tendency to increase the likelihood of drivers missing safety-critical events. APPLICATION This study demonstrates the need to consider the combined consequence of cognitive load and brief glances away from the road in the design of emerging in-vehicle devices and the need to provide drivers with better feedback regarding these consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ching Lee
- Institute of Aviation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Savoy, Illinois, USA
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31
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Abstract
Changes to a scene often go unnoticed if the objects of the change are unattended, making change detection an index of where attention is focused during scene perception. We measured change detection in school-age children and young adults by repeatedly alternating two versions of an image. To provide an age-fair assessment we used a bimanual choice rather than open-ended verbal responses. The difference in detection speed and accuracy between 50-ms versus 250-ms blank screens between views indexed change detection in short-term visual memory independent of sensory and response processes. Younger children were significantly less efficient than older participants, especially when an object changed color or had a part deleted. Changes in object orientation were detected more readily. These results point to important differences in the perceptual reality of younger and older children.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Shore
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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33
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Pearson P, Schaefer E. Toupee or not toupee? The role of instructional set, centrality, and relevance in change blindness. VISUAL COGNITION 2005. [DOI: 10.1080/13506280444000814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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34
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Galpin AJ, Underwood G. Eye movements during search and detection in comparative visual search. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 67:1313-31. [PMID: 16555584 DOI: 10.3758/bf03193637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Motivated by the fact that previous visual memory paradigms have imposed encoding and retrieval constraints, the present article presents two experiments that address how observers allocate eye movements in memory and comparison processes in the absence of constraints. A comparative visual search design (Pomplun, Sichelschmidt, et al., 2001) was utilized in which observers searched for a difference between two images presented side by side. Robust time course effects were obtained, whereby search was characterized by brief fixations and a high proportion of comparative saccades. Then, upon target detection, fixations were extended, more comparative saccades were elicited, and the search focus was narrowed. The saliency and presence of differences did not guide attention, and detection was contingent upon direct fixation of the targets. The results indicate that, when full control is given, observers adopt a strategy that cuts down on memory usage in favor of restricted encoding and active scanning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Galpin
- Department of Psychology, University of Manchester, Coupland Street, Manchester M13 9PL, England.
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35
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Miller JK, Westerman DL, Lloyd ME. Are first impressions lasting impressions? An exploration of the generality of the primacy effect in memory for repetitions. Mem Cognit 2004; 32:1305-15. [PMID: 15900924 DOI: 10.3758/bf03206321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In five experiments, we investigated the primacy effect in memory for repetitions (DiGirolamo & Hintzman, 1997), the finding that when participants are shown a study list that contains two very similar versions of the same stimulus, memory is biased in the direction of the version that was presented first. In the experiments reported, the generality of the effect was examined by manipulating the orientation and features of the repeated stimuli. The results confirmed that the effect is reliable when stimulus changes affect the accidental properties of the stimulus (properties of the stimulus that give information about distance or angle but do little to aid in identification). However, the effect was not found when changes were made to other aspects of the stimulus. The results suggest that the primacy effect in memory for repetitions is not robust across all stimulus changes and converge with previous findings that have demonstrated that such properties of stimuli as orientation and size are represented differently in memory than are other stimulus characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy K Miller
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, USA.
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36
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Mitroff SR, Simons DJ, Levin DT. Nothing compares 2 views: Change blindness can occur despite preserved access to the changed information. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 66:1268-81. [PMID: 15813193 DOI: 10.3758/bf03194997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Change blindness, the failure to detect visual changes that occur during a disruption, has increasingly been used to infer the nature of internal representations. If every change were detected, detailed representations of the world would have to be stored and accessible. However, because many changes are not detected, visual representations might not be complete, and access to them might be limited. Using change detection to infer the completeness of visual representations requires an understanding of the reasons for change blindness. This article provides empirical support for one such reason: change blindness resulting from the failure to compare retained representations of both the pre- and postchange information. Even when unaware of changes, observers still retained information about both the pre- and postchange objects on the same trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R Mitroff
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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37
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Jiang Y, Wagner LC. What is learned in spatial contextual cuing--configuration or individual locations? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 66:454-63. [PMID: 15283070 DOI: 10.3758/bf03194893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
With the use of spatial contextual cuing, we tested whether subjects learned to associate target locations with overall configurations of distractors or with individual locations of distractors. In Experiment 1, subjects were trained on 36 visual search displays that contained 36 sets of distractor locations and 18 target locations. Each target location was paired with two sets of distractor locations on separate trials. After training, the subjects showed perfect transfer to recombined displays, which were created by combining half of one trained distractor set with half of another trained distractor set. This result suggests that individual distractor locations were sufficient to cue the target location. In Experiment 2, the subjects showed good transfer from trained displays to rescaled, displaced, and perceptually regrouped displays, suggesting that the relative locations among items were also learned. Thus, both individual target-distractor associations and configural associations are learned in contextual cuing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhong Jiang
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
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38
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Abstract
This article provides evidence for implicit change detection and for the contribution of multiple memory sources to online representations. Multiple eye-movement measures distinguished original from changed scenes, even when college students had no conscious awareness for the change. Patients with amnesia showed a systematic deficit on 1 class of eye-movement measures of change detection, even though conscious awareness was not required for the effect to be observed. The authors' findings suggest that online representations of scenes are (a) built up across viewings, (b) composed of activated information from both long-term and working memory, and (c) directly compared with currently processed information regarding the external world. Subsequent online processing is influenced by these representations even when the results of the comparison are not accessible for verbal report.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Ryan
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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39
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Barton JJS, Deepak S, Malik N. Attending to faces: change detection, familiarization, and inversion effects. Perception 2003; 32:15-28. [PMID: 12613783 DOI: 10.1068/p3460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We tested detection of changes to eye position, eye color (brightness), mouth position, and mouth color in frontal views of faces. Two faces were presented sequentially for 555 ms each, with a blank screen of 120 ms separating the two. Faces were presented either both upright or both inverted. Measures of detection (d') were calculated for several different degrees of change for each of the four dimensions of change. We first compared results to an earlier experiment that used an oddity design, in which subjects indicated which of three simultaneously viewed and otherwise identical faces had been altered on one of these four dimensions. Subjects in both of these experiments were partially cued, in that they knew the four possible types of changes that could occur on a given trial. The change-detection results correlated well with the oddity data. They confirmed that face inversion had little effect upon detection of changes in eye color, a moderate effect upon detection of eye-position or mouth-color changes, and caused a drastic reduction in the detection of mouth-position changes. An experiment in which uncued and fully cued subjects were compared showed that cueing significantly improved detection of feature color changes, but there was little difference between upright and inverted faces. Full cueing eliminated all effects of inversion. Compared to partial cueing, changes in mouth color were poorly detected by uncued subjects. Last, a change in the frequency of the base (unaltered) face in an experiment from 75% to 40% showed that increased short-term familiarity decreased the detection of eye changes and increased the detection of mouth changes, regardless of face orientation and the type of change made (color or position). We conclude that uncued subjects encode the spatial relations of features more than the colors of features, that mouth color in particular is not considered a relevant dimension for encoding, and that familiarization redistributes attention from more to less salient facial regions. Inversion effects are not simply an exaggeration of the salience effects revealed by withdrawing cueing, but represent an interaction of spatial encoding with salience, in that the greatest inversion effects occur for spatial shifts in less salient facial regions, and can be eliminated through the use of focused attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason J S Barton
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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40
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Dornhoefer SM, Unema PJA, Velichkovsky BM. Blinks, blanks and saccades: how blind we really are for relevant visual events. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2003; 140:119-31. [PMID: 12508586 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(02)40046-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
We report on a study in which subjects viewed color video stills of natural traffic situations while eye movements were recorded. A display change could occur randomly during three different occlusion modes--blinks, blanks and saccades--or during a fixation. These changes could be either relevant or irrelevant with respect to the traffic safety situation. Furthermore we contrasted insertions and deletions. All occlusion modes appeared equivalent concerning detection rate and detection time, and only differed from the fixation condition. The results also show that the detection of relevant changes was more likely and faster than that of irrelevant ones. However, even relevant insertions, which were almost always detected, were around 180 ms longer to report when they occurred during an occlusion. Furthermore, the detection of relevant changes was fairly stable across a wide range of the visual field, whereas irrelevant changes were less well detected, the further away from the fovea they occurred. We close with an outlook on a follow-up study where only relevant insertions and the blank occlusion were used in a driving simulator environment. Surprisingly, we found an advantage in change detection rate and time with blanks compared to the control condition. Change detection was also good during blinks, but not in saccades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha M Dornhoefer
- Department of Psychology III, Dresden University of Technology, Mommsenstrasse 13, 01062 Dresden, Germany.
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41
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Thornton IM, Fernandez-Duque D. Converging evidence for the detection of change without awareness. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2003; 140:99-118. [PMID: 12508585 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(02)40045-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, we explore the possibility that changes can be registered by the visual system and can influence behavior even in the absence of conscious awareness. We begin by describing the basic phenomenon of change blindness, introduce a framework for discussing some of the key issues relating to change detection as a whole, and then examine the main lines of evidence that point to the existence of implicit change detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Thornton
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Spemannstrasse 38, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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43
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Abstract
Normal people have a strikingly low ability to detect changes in a visual scene. This has been taken as evidence that the brain represents only a few objects at a time, namely those currently in the focus of attention. In the present study, subjects were asked to detect changes in the orientation of rectangular figures in a textured display across a 1600 ms gray interval. In the first experiment, change detection improved when the location of a possible change was cued during the interval. The cue remained effective during the entire interval, but after the interval, it was ineffective, suggesting that an initially large representation was overwritten by the post-change display. To control for an effect of light intensity during the interval on the decay of the representation, we compared performance with a gray or a white interval screen in a second experiment. We found no difference between these conditions. In the third experiment, attention was occasionally misdirected during the interval by first cueing the wrong figure, before cueing the correct figure. This did not compromise performance compared to a single cue, indicating that when an item is attentionally selected, the representation of yet unchosen items remains available. In the fourth experiment, the cue was shown to be effective when changes in figure size and orientation were randomly mixed. At the time the cue appeared, subjects could not know whether size or orientation would change, therefore these results suggest that the representation contains features in their 'bound' state. Together, these findings indicate that change blindness involves overwriting of a large capacity representation by the post-change display.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rogier Landman
- Department of Visual System Analysis, Graduate School of Neurosciences, Amsterdam, P.O. Box 12011, 1100AA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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44
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Abstract
What strategies does human vision use to attend to faces and their features? How are such strategies altered by 2-D inversion or photographic negation? We report two experiments in which these questions were studied with the flicker task of the change-blindness literature. In experiment 1 we studied detection of configural changes to the eyes or mouth, and found that upright faces receive more efficient attention than inverted faces, and that faces shown with normal contrast receive more efficient attention than faces shown in photographic negative. Moreover, eyes receive greater attention than the mouth. In experiment 2 we studied detection of local changes to the eyes or mouth, and found the same results. It is well known that inversion and negation impair the perception and recognition of faces. The experiments presented here extend previous findings by showing that inversion and negation also impair attention to faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temre N Davies
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA.
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45
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Abstract
Five aspects of visual change detection are reviewed. The first concerns the concept of change itself, in particular the ways it differs from the related notions of motion and difference. The second involves the various methodological approaches that have been developed to study change detection; it is shown that under a variety of conditions observers are often unable to see large changes directly in their field of view. Next, it is argued that this "change blindness" indicates that focused attention is needed to detect change, and that this can help map out the nature of visual attention. The fourth aspect concerns how these results affect our understanding of visual perception-for example, the implication that a sparse, dynamic representation underlies much of our visual experience. Finally, a brief discussion is presented concerning the limits to our current understanding of change detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald A Rensink
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Canada.
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46
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