Parental emotion regulation and preschoolers' prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of parental warmth and inductive discipline

A Brief Online Intervention to Increase Use of Nonphysical Discipline Approaches: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Moderate levels of child disruptive behavior are common and developmentally appropriate during toddlerhood. Caregiver discipline methods influence the development of regulatory strategies in children and the trajectory of behavior problems as children develop. Spanking is a commonly used discipline method in the United States that has been found to result in negative outcomes in childhood and adulthood. Given the high prevalence of child disruptive behaviors and frequency of caregivers' reliance on spanking to manage child behavior, it is important to disseminate information about safe and effective alternatives, including timeout. Previous research has shown that Play Nicely, a brief online program, may be an efficacious approach to reduce caregivers' positive attitudes toward spanking. However, investigators have yet to investigate whether Play Nicely may also influence caregivers' use of alternative nonphysical discipline methods. This study is a follow-up of a randomized controlled trial that examined Play Nicely's impact on attitudes toward and use of spanking. This study investigated whether Play Nicely increased reported use of nonphysical discipline methods among caregivers following intervention. Participants were 107 caregivers of 1- to 5-year-old children recruited from a pediatric primary care clinic and randomly assigned to participate in the Play Nicely program (n = 49) or a control condition (n = 58). Data on caregivers' use of effective nonphysical discipline methods were collected using a self-report measure administered in a primary care clinic at baseline and at one month following intervention. Participants in the treatment group were significantly more likely than those in the control group to report using timeout following the intervention (p < .05). Findings indicate that participation in Play Nicely may increase caregivers' self-reported use of timeout, suggesting that further dissemination of this program may be an effective means of increasing caregivers' use of alternatives to spanking.

The kids are bored: Trait boredom in early childhood and links to self-regulation, coping strategies, and parent-child interactions

Boredom is a negative emotion that most people experience on occasion. However, some people experience boredom more or are unable to tolerate it, which is called trait boredom. Trait boredom has been well-studied in adolescence and adulthood, but little is known about trait boredom in childhood. The main goal of this study was to measure trait boredom in 4- to 6-year-olds (N = 130) and to test whether it relates to self-regulatory processes in a similar fashion that has been observed in adults and identify strategies children use to cope with boredom. We found boredom in childhood was related to self-regulatory processes in a similar fashion as it does in adults, and most children used social stimulation strategies (e.g., asking to play with a parent) or behavioral strategies (e.g., playing with toys) to cope with boredom. The findings are discussed within the context of prevention and the emotion regulation and boredom literature.

Restorative Parental Discipline and Types of Defending Bystander Intervention in Cyberbullying: The Mediate Role of Justice Sensitivity

Parental socialization strategies are critical in explaining adolescents' online behavior. This study examined the relationships between parental restorative discipline, observed justice sensitivity, and cyber-bystander defender intervention (constructive and aggressive) in cyberbullying. The sample comprised 900 Mexican adolescents (40.2% male and 58.8% female), of which 450 were from secondary school (M age = 13.6, SD = 0.8) and 450 were from high school (M age = 15.4, SD = 1.3). Structural equation modeling with latent variables was performed. Overall, the results indicate that parental restorative discipline positively relates to the observer's justice sensitivity and the adoption of constructive interventions by cyber-bystander defenders. However, restorative discipline had no significant direct relationship with aggressive intervention. Observers' justice sensitivity mediates the association between restorative parenting discipline and aggressive or constructive defender interventions. Gender does not moderate the relationship proposed in the structural model. These findings suggest that parental restorative discipline explains constructive and aggressive cyber-bystander defender interventions in cyberbullying.

Cross-informant agreement between caregivers and teachers for prosocial behavior across child welfare settings

Healthy social functioning has been a growing focus for understanding children's positive development and well-being. Despite the flexibility and cost-effectiveness of behavior rating scales, there has been a rising issue of concern in both practice and research applications regarding rating scales and its low cross-informant agreement. The present study aimed to analyze the extent to which caregivers and teachers agree about children's prosocial behaviors, identify whether there were differences in the degree of agreement across child welfare settings, and ultimately offer recommendations for assessing behavior for children involved with child welfare services. To do so, the reports of 1,224 children, caregivers, and teachers from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) I who have been investigated by Child Protective Services (CPS) for abuse and/or neglect have been examined. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICCs) of caregiver and teacher assessment of children's prosocial functioning were calculated to understand the degree of agreement in their perceptions of children's prosocial behaviors. ICC values presented show that agreement was low but significant across all samples and subscales (ICC range, .11-.22). It is suggested that future researchers pursue examination of the underlying mechanisms or factors that contribute to informant discrepancies.

Parents' Beliefs about Children's Emotions and Children's Social Skills: The Mediating Role of Parents' Emotion Regulation

Few studies have investigated the relationship between parents' beliefs about children's emotions and children's social skills. Fewer studies have addressed this association and its underlying mechanisms while obtaining data from both parents. In this context, the present study explores the mediating role of parents' emotion regulation in the association between parents' beliefs about children's emotions and children's social skills. The participants were 90 parental dyads (N = 180) with typically developing preschool children. They completed self-report scales regarding parents' beliefs about their children's emotions, parents' emotion regulation, and children's social skills. The data were analyzed using the common fate mediation model (CFM with mediation). The results indicate that only parents' cognitive reappraisal mediates the relationship between their emotion-related beliefs and their children's social skills. Specifically, parental beliefs about "children's anger is valuable" and "children use their emotions to manipulate others" are directly and negatively associated with children's social skills, and indirectly through the parents' cognitive reappraisal. Future intervention programs should focus on restructuring parents' beliefs and their ability to regulate emotions.

Assessing the effectiveness and the mechanisms of the Social-Emotional Prevention Program for Preschoolers: Findings from a universal school-based intervention

The Social-Emotional Prevention Program (SEP) encompasses a multifaceted approach (classroom curriculum, with teacher and parent training) intended to increase preschool children's social adjustment, as well as to reduce risk of emotional and behavioral problems. The present study's focus was on implementing the technology-assisted SEP version and was aimed at (a) investigating the program's effectiveness on children's social-emotional competencies and parental practices, as well as (b) testing the program's conceptual framework, with an emphasis on children's emotion regulation (ER) skills and parental emotion socialization practices as explanatory intervention mechanisms. A randomized-controlled trial (RCT) was conducted with five schools assigned to either the intervention or to a comparison condition (wait-list control). Structural equation models (SEM) and complier average causal effects (CACE) were conducted to evaluate SEP effectiveness on teacher- and parent-rated child outcomes (primary outcomes) and parenting behaviors (secondary outcomes). Findings from the present study indicated that (a) SEP fosters increased social-emotional competencies and increased use of adaptive ER strategies, with teacher and parent ratings converging to support these outcomes; (b) parental participation in the program increased the use of reappraisal and emotion coaching strategies; and (c) children's ER mediated the intervention's effect on social competence, whereas parental coaching and parental ER mediated SEP effects on children's ER. This study's findings suggest that the SEP may be an effective universal intervention for promoting preschoolers' social-emotional competence and may provide emerging evidence to support the program's hypothesized mechanisms of change.

Parental warmth predicts more child pro-social behaviour in children with better emotion regulation

Parental warmth and child emotion regulation have each been implicated in the development of child pro-social behaviours; however, their interactive benefits remain unclear. In this multi-method, multi-cohort longitudinal study, we examined the effect of parental warmth on child pro-social behaviours at different levels of child emotion regulation. We collected data from 6- and 10-year-olds in Canada (N_T1  = 233; M_age  = 8.41; SD = 2.08) and their parents. Parental warmth, child emotion regulation, and child pro-social behaviours were assessed via parent report. Children's baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA; an indicator of cardiac regulatory capacity) was assessed as a correlate of emotion regulation. Child pro-social behaviours were assessed concurrently and 1 year later. Results showed that higher parental warmth was related to higher concurrent prosocial behaviours and greater increases in prosocial behaviours over 1 year. These effects were strengthened for children with higher emotion regulation whether measured by parent report or RSA. We discuss implications for understanding pro-social development in middle childhood from a strengths-based perspective.

Emotional Regulation in Mothers and Fathers and Relations to Aggression in Hong Kong Preschool Children

This study explored the associations among emotional regulation in mothers and fathers and preschool children's physical and relational aggression using a Hong Kong Chinese sample. This study also explored whether child gender would moderate the association between parental emotional regulation strategies and children's physical and relational aggression. Participants were 168 children aged 4-6 years. Parents reported on their own emotional regulation approaches and kindergarten class teachers rated children's aggression 6 months later. Path analyses showed that higher levels of reappraisal and lower levels of suppression by mothers was associated with higher levels of child relational aggression. There were no significant associations among fathers' emotional regulation and children's aggression. Results from multi-group analysis showed that there were no significant moderation of the associations by child gender. Results highlight the importance of mothers' emotional regulation in child aggression and suggest that the maladaptive consequences of emotional suppression are culturally relative.

Parent emotional regulation: A meta-analytic review of its association with parenting and child adjustment

We conducted a meta-analytic review of 53 studies published between 2000 and 2020 to quantify associations of parents’ emotion regulation with parenting behavior and children’s emotion regulation and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Twelve meta-analyses, which included between 4 to 22 effect sizes ( N from 345 to 3609), were conducted to summarize associations of parent emotion regulation with positive or negative parenting behaviors and child outcomes of emotion regulation, difficulties in emotion regulation, internalizing symptoms, or externalizing behavior. Given the range of behavioral parent emotion regulation measures used across studies, effect sizes for parent emotion regulation strategy use ( skill) were analyzed separately from effect sizes for parents’ difficulties with emotion regulation. Summary effect sizes ranged from |.08| to |.28| for relations of parent emotion regulation skill with parenting behaviors and children’s adjustment. Summary effect sizes ranged from |.03| to |.42| for relations of parent emotion regulation difficulties with parenting behaviors and children’s adjustment. In general, parents with better emotion regulation skill or fewer difficulties are higher in positive parenting behaviors and have children with better emotion regulation and fewer internalizing symptoms. Evidence was less clear-cut for child externalizing behaviors. Significant effect size heterogeneity was observed in most analyses, and study characteristics (measures, child age, parent gender, sampling, and region where the study was conducted) were examined as moderators. Measures used, child age, and participant risk status moderated effect size in some analyses.

Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

In recent years, the development of social and moral emotions (often associated to pro-social behaviors) has become the subject of increased research interest. However, the relation between these emotions and attachment is less studied. The present systematic literature review (PROSPERO: CRD42021247210) was designed to synthesize current empirical contributions that explore the link between attachment and the development of moral emotions (e.g., empathy, sympathy, altruism, and guilt) during childhood and adolescence. Article exclusion criteria included: studies with participants not living in natural contexts (e.g., institutionalized); studies on mental illness; qualitative research; research that does not reliably evaluate attachment or moral emotions; research on intervention programs; and non-peer-reviewed articles. Only 10 studies were found eligible. Results highlight a present focus on empathy and guilt and gaps regarding sympathy and altruism. The mediator role and positive effect of emotion regulation was noted. Significant positive correlations between attachment security and guilt, shame and forgiveness were emphasized. Limitations of the eligible studies included: representativeness of the participants; causality of the results; and the validity and significance of the instruments (e.g., lack of results reported by various parties involved). The present review aims to contribute to the understanding of an empathic, healthy development, in contrast to the alienation and bullying affecting the youth’s emotional, relational and academic lives.

The role of emotion regulation and maternal symptoms in Turkish mothers' caregiving helplessness during toddlerhood

To support mothers' positive parenting practices and designing effective early interventions in developing countries like Turkey, understanding the factors associated with feelings of helplessness in caregiving can play an important role. Therefore, we explored how mothers' depression and anxiety symptoms, and emotion regulation strategies of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal can contribute to caregiving helplessness during toddlerhood. We also examined whether depression and anxiety can mediate the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and caregiving helplessness. A sample of 552 healthy Turkish mothers (MAge = 32.11) with 1-4 year old healthy children (MAge = 1.51) replied to advertisements we shared face-to-face and filled out a pack of questionnaires including a demographic form, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Brief Symptom Inventory and Caregiving Helplessness Questionnaire. A series of path analysis were conducted to reveal the association between emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression), depression and anxiety symptoms, and caregiving helplessness. After controlling for socio-economic status (SES), maternal anxiety but not maternal depression positively predicted caregiving helplessnes. Unlike cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression positively predicted caregiving helplessness. SES had an indirect effect (via suppression) on caregiving helplessness on caregiving helplessness. In toddlerhood, maternal anxiety rather than depression, and expressive supression rather than cogntivie reappraisal could be potential risk factors for caregiving helplessness. Thus, these can be critical target areas for effective early interventions.

Coercive Parenting Mediates the Relationship between Military Fathers' Emotion Regulation and children's Adjustment

Military parents' combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms have been linked to poor parenting and child maladjustment. Emotion regulation (ER) difficulties are thought to underlie PTSD symptoms, and research has begun to link parental ER to parenting behaviors. Little empirical evidence exists regarding whether fathers' ER is associated with child adjustment and what may be the underlying mechanism for this association. This study investigated whether deployed fathers' ER was associated with child emotional and behavioral problems, and whether the associations were mediated by coercive parenting behaviors. The sample consisted of 181 deployed fathers with non-deployed female partners and their 4- to 13-year-old children. Families were assessed at three time points over 2 years. ER was measured using a latent construct of fathers' self-reports of their experiential avoidance, trait mindfulness, and difficulties in emotion regulation. Coercive parenting was observed via a series of home-based family interaction tasks. Child behaviors were assessed through parent- and child-report. Structural equation modeling revealed that fathers with poorer ER at baseline exhibited higher coercive parenting at 1-year follow-up, which was associated with more emotional and behavioral problems in children at 2-year follow-up. The indirect effect of coercive parenting was statistically significant. These findings suggest that fathers' difficulties in ER may impede their effective parenting behaviors, and children's adjustment problems might be amplified as a result of coercive interactions. Implications for the role of paternal ER on parenting interventions are discussed.