Psychometric Properties of the German Version of the Young Positive Schema Questionnaire (YPSQ) in the General Population and Psychiatric Patients

A Model of Core Emotional Needs and Toxic Experiences: Their Links with Schema Domains, Well-Being, and Ill-Being

This study examined the second-order schema domains of Early Maladaptive and Adaptive Schemas based on recent trends and compared them with the five theoretical second-order schema domains commonly used in schema therapy. Using six international Eastern and Western community samples-Singapore (n = 628), Malaysia (n = 229), USA (n = 396), South Africa (n = 390), Nigeria (n = 364), India (n = 306)-confirmatory factor analysis showed that the four second-order domains of EMSs and EASs, which ran almost parallel with each other, were the most robust models calling into question the validity of the five domain model. Given the hypothesized links between schemas and needs, these four categories of EMSs and EASs represent four categories of toxic experiences and core emotional needs, respectively. These categories were supported empirically and are useful to parents as well as to clinicians as they approach child rearing and the treatment of clients in schema therapy from the vantage point of needs. These four categories of psychological core emotional needs, as well as toxic experiences, were found, as expected, to be linked with various measures of well-being and ill-being.

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Schema Modes in clinical disorders: A systematic review

PURPOSE

Although schema therapy has been predominantly applied to treat personality disorders, interest into its application in other clinical disorders is growing. Central to schema therapy are Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) and Schema Modes. Since existing EMS and Schema Modes were primarily developed in the context of personality disorders, their relevance for clinical disorders is unclear.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of the presence of EMS and Schema Modes in clinical disorders according to DSM criteria. Per disorder, we evaluated which EMS and Schema Modes were more pronounced in comparison with clinical as well as non-clinical control groups and which EMS and Schema Modes were most highly endorsed within the disorder.

RESULTS

Although evidence concerning EMS was scarce for several disorders, and only few studies on Schema Modes survived inclusion criteria, we identified meaningful relationships and patterns for EMS and Schema Modes in various clinical disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review highlights the relevance of EMS and Schema Modes for clinical disorders beyond personality disorders. Depending on the theme of the representation, EMS act as vulnerabilities both across diagnoses and for specific disorders. Thus, EMS and resulting Schema Modes are potential, valuable targets for the prevention and treatment of clinical disorders.

Dialectical Core Schemas Mediate the Relationships Between Dissociative Experiences and Symptomatology in a Community Sample

BACKGROUND

Maladaptive cognitions about the self and others are associated with a wide array of dysfunctional responses and psychopathological symptoms in non-clinical and clinical samples. Dissociative experiences (e.g., depersonalization and derealization) as a coping response to stressful situations lie on a continuum from healthy to unhealthy but are generally elevated in individuals experiencing mental illness. However, the extent to which Dialectical Core Schemas explain the relationship between dissociative experiences and symptomatology is unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the mediating role of Dialectical Core Schemas on the relationship between dissociative experiences and symptomatology.

METHODS

A community sample of 179 participants were recruited (M_age = 21.2 years, SD = 8.2). Data were gathered through self-report questionnaires using a cross-sectional design.

RESULTS

Maladaptive core schemas about self and others correlated positively with all dissociative experiences (e.g., depersonalization/derealization, amnesia), while adaptive core schemas about the self correlated negatively with depersonalization/derealization and distractibility. Maladaptive core schemas mediated the relationship between dissociative experiences and symptomatology.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationships between dissociative experiences and symptomatology are bi-directional. Exploring the mediating factors may help clinicians and researchers better understand how to enhance case conceptualization and clinical decision-making.

Early maladaptive schemas and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a condition with poor treatment outcomes. Improved understanding of the aetiology can inform prevention and treatment approaches; hence several studies have assessed early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) in OCD. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to synthesise the evidence on relationships between the 18 EMSs and OCD.

METHODS

The study was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines and registered on PROSPERO (CRD42022329337). A systematic search of PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL Complete was conducted on 4 June 2022. Studies in peer-reviewed journal articles were included if they assessed EMSs and OCD (diagnosis or symptom severity) in adults with a mean age of 18 years or older. Studies were excluded if they were not in English, did not include original quantitative data, or reported on case studies. Study details were tabulated and the meta-analysis findings were presented using forest plots. Methodological quality was assessed using the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS).

RESULTS

Based on 22 studies (pooled N = 3699), all 18 EMSs were positively correlated with OCD. The largest associations were with the dependence/incompetence (r = 0.40 95 % CI [0.32, 0.47]), vulnerability to harm or illness (r = 0.40 95 % CI [0.32, 0.48]), and negativity/pessimism schemas (r = 0.42 95 % CI [0.22, 0.58]).

LIMITATIONS

Several meta-analyses showed considerable heterogeneity and publication bias.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest all EMSs, particularly those relating to disproportionate negative expectations and a perceived inability to cope, are implicated in OCD. Psychological prevention and treatment for OCD may benefit from targeting these schemas.

Factor structure of the Young Positive Schema Questionnaire in an eating disorder sample

PURPOSE

The Young Positive Schema Questionnaire (YPSQ) measures early adaptive schemas (EAS) which could be used to develop positive psychology and schema-based interventions to benefit the treatment of eating disorders (EDs).

METHODS

The present study investigated the factor structure of the YPSQ in a sample of 826 participants (18-73 years; n = 753 women) with ED symptomatology (e.g., restricting, binging, and purging). The sample was randomly split into two groups for exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Full sample analysis using Pearson correlations was conducted to explore convergent validity of the new YSPQ factor structure with ED symptomatology, emotional regulation, and cognitive flexibility.

RESULTS

A nine-factor model was found, demonstrating good fit indices and internal consistency (α = 0.77-0.92). The YPSQ showed an inverse relationship to ED symptomatology and emotional suppression, and a positive relationship with cognitive flexibility and emotion reappraisal.

CONCLUSION

Further research is needed to explore the clinical benefits of the YPSQ to identify EAS deficits in individuals with EDs to improve treatment outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, descriptive study.

Exploring the Relationship between Early Adaptive Schemas and Sexual Satisfaction

Rationale

Early maladaptive schemas (EMS) develop from unmet core emotional needs during childhood and adolescence. EMS influence the way individuals perceive themselves and others, while also sharing associations with various sexual difficulties. Contrastingly, Early Adaptive Schemas (EAS) develop when core emotional needs are met. Yet, the potential influence of EAS on sexual wellbeing remains underinvestigated.

Objective

The current study assessed the relationship between EAS and sexual satisfaction as a primary component of sexual wellbeing.

Method

The study design was an online, cross-sectional survey. Participants included 732 adults (Mage = 32.05, SDage = 9.30), who completed self-report questionnaires assessing sexual satisfaction and EAS.

Results

Two, three-step hierarchical regressions evaluated the effect of EAS on sexual satisfaction, controlling for several potentially confounding variables. Results indicated that the only EAS that was associated with sexual satisfaction in both men and women was Realistic Expectations. EAS of Social Belonging and Success were associated with sexual satisfaction for women alone, whereas Self-Compassion was for men.

Conclusion

Findings provide preliminary evidence that EAS are associated with sexual satisfaction. As such, schema therapy may be a useful therapeutic framework for improving sexual satisfaction, when indicated.

Relationships between positive schemas and life satisfaction in psychiatric inpatients

Introduction

Unlike the extensively examined early maladaptive schemas, positive schemas have rarely been examined in psychiatric patients. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between anxiety, depression, life satisfaction, resilience, and positive schemas in psychiatric inpatients with generalized anxiety disorder or major depressive disorder and explore their associations. A sample of 140 psychiatric inpatients with anxiety and depression, aged between 18 and 72 years (M_age  = 35.62, SD = 13.87) participated in this study.

Methods

A majority were women (n = 98, 70.0%). The analyses examined resilience and anxiety/depression as mediators between positive schema and life satisfaction.

Results

Based on statistical analyses, resilience and anxiety/depression were parallel rather than serial mediators between positive schemas and life satisfaction. These results confirmed the positive association between positive schemas and life satisfaction, and identified mechanisms between them: directly associated and indirectly associated through the parallel mediations of resilience and anxiety/depression.

Discussion

The findings of this study suggest that higher levels of positive schemas in psychiatric inpatients are associated with greater life satisfaction directly and through the mediation of reduced psychopathological emotions and increased resilience. Longitudinal studies are needed to explore the associations between positive schemas and negative and positive outcomes and the mechanisms underlying these associations in clinical populations.

Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the Young Positive Schema Questionnaire

Introduction

The Young Positive Schema Questionnaire (YPSQ) examines early adaptive or positive schemas as a counterpart to early maladaptive ones. This study investigated the validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the YPSQ (CYPSQ).

Methods

A convenient community sample of 634 individuals, most of whom were college students, were recruited through a mobile survey. R Careless was used to screen for careless responses. A final sample of 336 was obtained. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) of the CYPSQ were conducted using SPSS AMOS 25. Other statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 25.

Results

An 11-factor CYPSQ was identified with an acceptable factor structure (χ2/df = 2.13, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA = 0.06, GFI = 0.80, TLI = 0.90, and CFI = 0.91). Convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed in most aspects. Concurrent validity was evident with resilience, life satisfaction, depression, and anxiety. Internal reliability was satisfied as the Cronbach’s alphas of the 11 factors of the CYPSQ ranged between 0.70 and 0.88.

Conclusion

The findings supported the reliability and validity of the CYPSQ in Mainland China.

Predicting the role of coping factors on pandemic-related anxiety

The year 2020 saw the emergence of a worldwide pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus COVID-19. Measures against further spread of the virus were taken nearly everywhere in the world. Many countries also imposed social distancing rules and lockdowns on their population. This situation has caused a lot of fear and insecurity, along with reactance and even unrest in some countries. In this study, we measured the psychological concepts of resilience, reactance, positive schemas, social solidarity, and anxiety among psychiatric patients and in how far these factors influence their psychopathological anxiety during the pandemic. The aim was to better understand in what ways these factors influence pandemic anxiety to be able to reduce its negative psychological effects. Findings show a significant effect of positive schemas and social solidarity on the level of pandemic anxiety in a sample of psychiatric patients, but no correlation between resilience or reactance and pandemic anxiety. Based on these insights, the inclusion of positive schemas and social solidarity for therapy should be considered. Looking deeper into the relation between positive schemas and pandemic anxiety could provide insight into the different ways that schemas influence people's anxiety and determine whether some of them are particularly important.