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Zagorec-Marks C, Kocheril GS, Krohn OA, Kieft T, Karpinska A, Softley TP, Lewandowski HJ. To form or not to form a reaction complex: exploring ion-molecule reactions between C 3H 4 isomers and Xe + and O 2. Faraday Discuss 2024. [PMID: 38764353 DOI: 10.1039/d4fd00005f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
Ion-molecule reactions are an essential contributor to the chemistry of a diverse range of environments. While a great deal of work has been done to understand the fundamental mechanisms driving these reactions, there is still much more to discover. Here, we expand upon prior studies on ion-molecule reactions involving two isomers of C3H4, allene (H2C3H2) and propyne (H3C3H). Specifically, we probe the previously observed isomeric dependent reactivity of these molecules by reacting them with two ions with nearly identical ionization potentials, Xe+ and O2+. Our goal is to determine if the isomer-dependent reaction mechanisms previously observed are universal for C3H4 or if they depend on the ion character as well. Through the combination of experimental measurements and theoretical calculations, we found that both isomeric structure and identity of the ion contribute to the propensity of a reaction complex forming or for only long-range charge transfer to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Zagorec-Marks
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - G S Kocheril
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - O A Krohn
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - T Kieft
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - A Karpinska
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Life Sciences, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - T P Softley
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT, UK
| | - H J Lewandowski
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and the University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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2
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Krohn OA, Lewandowski HJ. Cold Ion-Molecule Reactions in the Extreme Environment of a Coulomb Crystal. J Phys Chem A 2024. [PMID: 38359783 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c07546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Coulomb crystals provide a unique environment in which to study ion-neutral gas-phase reactions. In these cold, trapped ensembles, we are able to study the kinetics and dynamics of small molecular systems. These measurements have connections to chemistry in the Interstellar Medium (ISM) and planetary atmospheres. This Feature Article will describe recent work in our laboratory that uses Coulomb crystals to study translationally cold, ion-neutral reactions. We provide a description of how the various affordances of our experimental system allow for detailed studies of the reaction mechanisms and the corresponding products. In particular, we will describe quantum-state resolved reactions, isomer-dependent reactions, and reactions with a rarely studied, astrophysically relevant ion, CCl+.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Krohn
- JILA and the Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - H J Lewandowski
- JILA and the Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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3
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Krohn OA, Catani KJ, P Sundar S, Greenberg J, da Silva G, Lewandowski HJ. Reactions of Acetonitrile with Trapped, Translationally Cold Acetylene Cations. J Phys Chem A 2023. [PMID: 37289961 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c00914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The reaction of the acetylene cation (C2H2+) with acetonitrile (CH3CN) is measured in a linear Paul ion trap coupled to a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. C2H2+ and CH3CN are both noted for their astrochemical abundance and predicted relevance for understanding prebiotic chemistry. The observed primary products are c-C3H3+, C3H4+, and C2NH3+. The latter two products react with excess CH3CN to form the secondary product C2NH4+, protonated acetonitrile. The molecular formula of these ionic products can be verified with the aid of isotope substitution via deuteration of the reactants. Primary product reaction pathways and thermodynamics are investigated with quantum chemical calculations and demonstrate exothermic pathways to two isomers of C2NH3+, two isomers of C3H4+, and the cyclopropenyl cation c-C3H3+. This study deepens our understanding of the dynamics and products of a pertinent ion-molecule reaction between two astrochemically abundant molecules in conditions that mimic those of the interstellar medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Krohn
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - K J Catani
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - Srivathsan P Sundar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Victoria, Australia
| | - James Greenberg
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - G da Silva
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Victoria, Australia
| | - H J Lewandowski
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- JILA, National Institute of Standards and Technology and University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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4
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Kilaj A, Käser S, Wang J, Straňák P, Schwilk M, Xu L, von Lilienfeld OA, Küpper J, Meuwly M, Willitsch S. Conformational and state-specific effects in reactions of 2,3-dibromobutadiene with Coulomb-crystallized calcium ions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:13933-13945. [PMID: 37190820 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp01416a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in experimental methodology enabled studies of the quantum-state- and conformational dependence of chemical reactions under precisely controlled conditions in the gas phase. Here, we generated samples of selected gauche and s-trans 2,3-dibromobutadiene (DBB) by electrostatic deflection in a molecular beam and studied their reaction with Coulomb crystals of laser-cooled Ca+ ions in an ion trap. The rate coefficients for the total reaction were found to strongly depend on both the conformation of DBB and the electronic state of Ca+. In the (4p)2P1/2 and (3d)2D3/2 excited states of Ca+, the reaction is capture-limited and faster for the gauche conformer due to long-range ion-dipole interactions. In the (4s)2S1/2 ground state of Ca+, the reaction rate for s-trans DBB still conforms with the capture limit, while that for gauche DBB is strongly suppressed. The experimental observations were analysed with the help of adiabatic capture theory, ab initio calculations and reactive molecular dynamics simulations on a machine-learned full-dimensional potential energy surface of the system. The theory yields near-quantitative agreement for s-trans-DBB, but overestimates the reactivity of the gauche-conformer compared to the experiment. The present study points to the important role of molecular geometry even in strongly reactive exothermic systems and illustrates striking differences in the reactivity of individual conformers in gas-phase ion-molecule reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ardita Kilaj
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Silvan Käser
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Jia Wang
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science CFEL, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestr. 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Patrik Straňák
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Max Schwilk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Lei Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - O Anatole von Lilienfeld
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
- Vector Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Toronto, ON, M5S 1M1, Canada
- Departments of Chemistry, Materials Science and Engineering, and Physics, University of Toronto, St. George Campus, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
- Machine Learning Group, Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute for the Foundations of Learning and Data - BIFOLD, Germany
| | - Jochen Küpper
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science CFEL, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestr. 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany.
- Department of Physics, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
- Center for Ultrafast Imaging, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Markus Meuwly
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Stefan Willitsch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 80, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
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5
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Barnum TJ, Clausen G, Jiang J, Coy SL, Field RW. Long-range model of vibrational autoionization in core-nonpenetrating Rydberg states of NO. J Chem Phys 2021; 155:244303. [PMID: 34972375 DOI: 10.1063/5.0070879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In high orbital angular momentum (ℓ ≥ 3) Rydberg states, the centrifugal barrier hinders the close approach of the Rydberg electron to the ion-core. As a result, these core-nonpenetrating Rydberg states can be well described by a simplified model in which the Rydberg electron is only weakly perturbed by the long-range electric properties (i.e., multipole moments and polarizabilities) of the ion-core. We have used a long-range model to describe the vibrational autoionization dynamics of high-ℓ Rydberg states of nitric oxide (NO). In particular, our model explains the extensive angular momentum exchange between the ion-core and the Rydberg electron that had been previously observed in vibrational autoionization of f (ℓ = 3) Rydberg states. These results shed light on a long-standing mechanistic question around these previous observations and support a direct, vibrational mechanism of autoionization over an indirect, predissociation-mediated mechanism. In addition, our model correctly predicts newly measured total decay rates of g (ℓ = 4) Rydberg states because for ℓ ≥ 4, the non-radiative decay is dominated by autoionization rather than predissociation. We examine the predicted NO+ ion rotational state distributions generated by vibrational autoionization of g states and discuss applications of our model to achieve quantum state selection in the production of molecular ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Barnum
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Gloria Clausen
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jun Jiang
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Stephen L Coy
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Robert W Field
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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6
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Tsikritea A, Park K, Bertier P, Loreau J, Softley TP, Heazlewood BR. Inverse kinetic isotope effects in the charge transfer reactions of ammonia with rare gas ions. Chem Sci 2021; 12:10005-10013. [PMID: 34377395 PMCID: PMC8317658 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc01652k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the absence of experimental data, models of complex chemical environments rely on predicted reaction properties. Astrochemistry models, for example, typically adopt variants of capture theory to estimate the reactivity of ionic species present in interstellar environments. In this work, we examine astrochemically-relevant charge transfer reactions between two isotopologues of ammonia, NH3 and ND3, and two rare gas ions, Kr+ and Ar+. An inverse kinetic isotope effect is observed; ND3 reacts faster than NH3. Combining these results with findings from an earlier study on Xe+ (Petralia et al., Nat. Commun., 2020, 11, 1), we note that the magnitude of the kinetic isotope effect shows a dependence on the identity of the rare gas ion. Capture theory models consistently overestimate the reaction rate coefficients and cannot account for the observed inverse kinetic isotope effects. In all three cases, the reactant and product potential energy surfaces, constructed from high-level ab initio calculations, do not exhibit any energetically-accessible crossing points. Aided by a one-dimensional quantum-mechanical model, we propose a possible explanation for the presence of inverse kinetic isotope effects in these charge transfer reaction systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tsikritea
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ UK
- Department of Physics, University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZE UK
| | - K Park
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ UK
| | - P Bertier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Physical and Theoretical Chemistry South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3QZ UK
| | - J Loreau
- KU Leuven, Department of Chemistry Celestijnenlaan 200F B-3001 Leuven Belgium
| | - T P Softley
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham Edgbaston B15 2TT UK
| | - B R Heazlewood
- Department of Physics, University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZE UK
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7
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Greenberg J, Schmid PC, Thorpe JH, Nguyen TL, Catani KJ, Krohn OA, Miller MI, Stanton JF, Lewandowski HJ. Using isotopologues to probe the potential energy surface of reactions of C 2H 2 ++C 3H 4. J Chem Phys 2021; 154:124310. [PMID: 33810655 DOI: 10.1063/5.0046438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigations into bimolecular reaction kinetics probe the details of the underlying potential energy surface (PES), which can help to validate high-level quantum chemical calculations. We utilize a combined linear Paul ion trap with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer to study isotopologue reactions between acetylene cations (C2H2 +) and two isomers of C3H4: propyne (HC3H3) and allene (H2C3H2). In a previous study [Schmid et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 22, 20303 (2020)],1 we showed that the two isomers of C3H4 have fundamentally different reaction mechanisms. Here, we further explore the calculated PES by isotope substitution. While isotopic substitution of reactants is a standard experimental tool in the investigation of molecular reaction kinetics, the controlled environment of co-trapped, laser-cooled Ca+ ions allows the different isotopic reaction pathways to be followed in greater detail. We report branching ratios for all of the primary products of the different isotopic species. The results validate the previously proposed mechanism: propyne forms a bound reaction complex with C2H2 +, while allene and C2H2 + perform long-range charge exchange only.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Greenberg
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, 390 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Philipp C Schmid
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, 390 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - James H Thorpe
- Quantum Theory Project, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Thanh L Nguyen
- Quantum Theory Project, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Katherine J Catani
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, 390 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Olivia A Krohn
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, 390 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - Mikhail I Miller
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, 390 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - John F Stanton
- Quantum Theory Project, Departments of Chemistry and Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - H J Lewandowski
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, 390 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
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8
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Krohn OA, Catani KJ, Greenberg J, Sundar SP, da Silva G, Lewandowski HJ. Isotope-specific reactions of acetonitrile (CH 3CN) with trapped, translationally cold CCl . J Chem Phys 2021; 154:074305. [PMID: 33607907 DOI: 10.1063/5.0038113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The gas-phase reaction of CCl+ with acetonitrile (CH3CN) is studied using a linear Paul ion trap coupled to a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This work builds on a previous study of the reaction of CCl+ with acetylene [K. J. Catani et al., J. Chem. Phys. 152, 234310 (2020)] and further explores the reactivity of CCl+ with organic neutral molecules. Both of the reactant species are relevant in observations and models of chemistry in the interstellar medium. Nitriles, in particular, are noted for their relevance in prebiotic chemistry and are found in the atmosphere of Titan, one of Saturn's moons. This work represents one of the first studied reactions of a halogenated carbocation with a nitrile and the first exploration of CCl+ with a nitrile. Reactant isotopologues are used to unambiguously assign ionic primary products from this reaction: HNCCl+ and C2H3 +. Branching ratios are measured, and both primary products are determined to be equally probable. Quantum chemical and statistical reaction rate theory calculations illuminate pertinent information for interpreting the reaction data, including reaction thermodynamics and a potential energy surface for the reaction, as well as rate constants and branching ratios for the observed products. In particular, the reaction products and potential energy surface stimulate questions regarding the strength and role of the nitrile functional group, which can be further explored with more reactions of this class.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Krohn
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - K J Catani
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - J Greenberg
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
| | - S P Sundar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Victoria, Australia
| | - G da Silva
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Victoria, Australia
| | - H J Lewandowski
- Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
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9
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Abstract
The prospect of cooling matter down to temperatures that are close to absolute zero raises intriguing questions about how chemical reactivity changes under these extreme conditions. Although some types of chemical reaction still occur at 1 μK, they can no longer adhere to the conventional picture of reactants passing over an activation energy barrier to become products. Indeed, at ultracold temperatures, the system enters a fully quantum regime, and quantum mechanics replaces the classical picture of colliding particles. In this Review, we discuss recent experimental and theoretical developments that allow us to explore chemical reactions at temperatures that range from 100 K to 500 nK. Although the field is still in its infancy, exceptional control has already been demonstrated over reactivity at low temperatures.
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10
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Catani KJ, Greenberg J, Saarel BV, Lewandowski HJ. Reactions of translationally cold trapped CCl+ with acetylene (C2H2). J Chem Phys 2020; 152:234310. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0008656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- K. J. Catani
- JILA and the Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0440, USA
| | - J. Greenberg
- JILA and the Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0440, USA
| | - B. V. Saarel
- JILA and the Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0440, USA
| | - H. J. Lewandowski
- JILA and the Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0440, USA
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11
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Schmid PC, Greenberg J, Nguyen TL, Thorpe JH, Catani KJ, Krohn OA, Miller MI, Stanton JF, Lewandowski HJ. Isomer-selected ion–molecule reactions of acetylene cations with propyne and allene. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:20303-20310. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cp03953e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A combined experimental and quantum chemistry study between sympathetically cooled acetylene cations and propyne or allene explains the dramatically different reaction mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- P. C. Schmid
- JILA and the Department of Physics
- University of Colorado
- Boulder
- USA
- I. Physikalisches Institut
| | - J. Greenberg
- JILA and the Department of Physics
- University of Colorado
- Boulder
- USA
| | - T. L. Nguyen
- Quantum Theory Project
- Departments of Chemistry and Physics
- University of Florida
- Gainesville
- USA
| | - J. H. Thorpe
- Quantum Theory Project
- Departments of Chemistry and Physics
- University of Florida
- Gainesville
- USA
| | - K. J. Catani
- JILA and the Department of Physics
- University of Colorado
- Boulder
- USA
| | - O. A. Krohn
- JILA and the Department of Physics
- University of Colorado
- Boulder
- USA
| | - M. I. Miller
- JILA and the Department of Physics
- University of Colorado
- Boulder
- USA
| | - J. F. Stanton
- Quantum Theory Project
- Departments of Chemistry and Physics
- University of Florida
- Gainesville
- USA
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12
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Toscano J, Lewandowski HJ, Heazlewood BR. Cold and controlled chemical reaction dynamics. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:9180-9194. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cp00931h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
State-to-state chemical reaction dynamics, with complete control over the reaction parameters, offers unparalleled insight into fundamental reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jutta Toscano
- JILA and the Department of Physics
- University of Colorado
- Boulder
- USA
| | | | - Brianna R. Heazlewood
- Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory (PTCL)
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Oxford
- Oxford
- UK
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