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Park JB, Cho S, Lee SY, Park SM, Chun HS. Occurrence and risk assessment of okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, dinophysistoxin-2, and dinophysistoxin-3 in seafood from South Korea. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:6243-6257. [PMID: 38147248 PMCID: PMC10799158 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31568-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
The okadaic acid (OA)-group toxins, including OA, dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2), and dinophysistoxin-3 (DTX3), cause diarrheic shellfish poisoning in humans. To manage OA-group toxins more strictly, Korean regulations were recently revised to consider OA, DTX1, DTX2, and DTX3 combined. Thus, our study characterized the occurrence of OA, DTX1, DTX2, and DTX3 in seafood distributed across South Korea, and a risk assessment of seafood consumption was conducted. Two hundred and seventeen samples from 16 bivalve and 7 non-bivalve species collected from three representative coastal areas in 2021 were analyzed via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. OA, DTX1, and DTX3 were detected in 2.3%, 4.1%, and 9.2% of the examined samples, with positive mean levels of 11.3, 16.4, and 40.9 µg/kg, respectively. DTX2 was not detected in any of the samples. At least one OA-group toxin was detected in the bivalve samples, including blood clams, pan shells, hard clams, mussels, and scallops, whereas none were detected in non-bivalves. The estimated acute exposure to OA-group toxins through the intake of seafood in the Korean population and consumer groups was low, ranging from 24.7 to 74.5% of the recommended acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.33 μg OA equivalents/kg body weight. However, for the scallop consumers aged 7-12 years, acute exposure to OA-group toxins exceeded the ARfD, indicating a possible health risk. These results suggest that including DTX3 in the new regulatory limits is appropriate to protect Korean seafood consumers from exposure to OA-group toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Bin Park
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, South Korea
| | - Solyi Cho
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, South Korea
| | - Sang Yoo Lee
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, South Korea
| | - Su Mi Park
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, South Korea
| | - Hyang Sook Chun
- Food Toxicology Laboratory, School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, 17546, South Korea.
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Nagai S, Basti L, Uchida H, Kuribayashi T, Natsuike M, Sildever S, Nakayama N, Lum WM, Matsushima R. Growth, Toxin Content and Production of Dinophysis Norvegica in Cultured Strains Isolated from Funka Bay (Japan). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050318. [PMID: 37235353 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The successful cultivation of Dinophysis norvegica Claparède & Lachmann, 1859, isolated from Japanese coastal waters, is presented in this study, which also includes an examination of its toxin content and production for the first time. Maintaining the strains at a high abundance (>2000 cells per mL-1) for more than 20 months was achieved by feeding them with the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum Lohmann, 1908, along with the addition of the cryptophyte Teleaulax amphioxeia (W.Conrad) D.R.A.Hill, 1992. Toxin production was examined using seven established strains. At the end of the one-month incubation period, the total amounts of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) ranged between 132.0 and 375.0 ng per mL-1 (n = 7), and 0.7 and 3.6 ng per mL-1 (n = 3), respectively. Furthermore, only one strain was found to contain a trace level of okadaic acid (OA). Similarly, the cell quota of pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1) ranged from 60.6 to 152.4 pg per cell-1 (n = 7) and 0.5 to 1.2 pg per cell-1 (n = 3), respectively. The results of this study indicate that toxin production in this species is subject to variation depending on the strain. According to the growth experiment, D. norvegica exhibited a long lag phase, as suggested by the slow growth observed during the first 12 days. In the growth experiment, D. norvegica grew very slowly for the first 12 days, suggesting they had a long lag phase. However, after that, they grew exponentially, with a maximum growth rate of 0.56 divisions per day (during Days 24-27), reaching a maximum concentration of 3000 cells per mL-1 at the end of the incubation (Day 36). In the toxin production study, the concentration of DTX1 and PTX2 increased following their vegetative growth, but the toxin production still increased exponentially on Day 36 (1.3 ng per mL-1 and 154.7 ng per mL-1 of DTX1 and PTX2, respectively). The concentration of OA remained below detectable levels (≤0.010 ng per mL-1) during the 36-day incubation period, with the exception of Day 6. This study presents new information on the toxin production and content of D. norvegica, as well as insights into the maintenance and culturing of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Nagai
- Coastal and Inland Fisheries Division, Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8648, Japan
| | - Leila Basti
- Department of Integrative Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Faculty of Marine Resources and Environment, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8477, Japan
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Seafood Safety and Technology Division, Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8648, Japan
| | - Takanori Kuribayashi
- Headquarters, Hokkaido Research Organization, Kita 19 Nishi 11, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan
| | - Masafumi Natsuike
- Hakodate Fisheries Research Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, 20-5 Benten-cho, Hakodate 040-0051, Japan
| | - Sirje Sildever
- Department of Marine Systems, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15A, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Natsuko Nakayama
- Environmental Conservation Division, Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-17-5 Maruishi, Hatsukaichi 739-0452, Japan
| | - Wai Mun Lum
- Coastal and Inland Fisheries Division, Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8648, Japan
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Ryuji Matsushima
- Seafood Safety and Technology Division, Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8648, Japan
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da Silva CA, Mafra LL, Rossi GR, da Silva Trindade E, Matias WG. A simple method to evaluate the toxic effects of Prorocentrum lima extracts to fish (sea bass) kidney cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2022; 85:105476. [PMID: 36126776 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DSTs) okadaic acid (OA) and its analogues - the dinophysistoxins (DTXs) - are produced by dinoflagellates such as Prorocentrum lima and can bioaccumulate in filter-feeding organisms as they are transferred through the food web. Although there is no assessment of the harmful effects of these toxins on the fish's immune system, this study developed a primary culture protocol for kidney cells from marine fish Centropomus parallelus and evaluated the immunotoxic effects to P. lima extracts containing DSTs. The cells were obtained by mechanical dissociation, segregated with Percoll gradient, and incubated for 24 h at 28 °C in a Leibovitz culture medium supplemented with 2% fetal bovine serum and antibiotics. The exposed cells were evaluated in flow cytometry using the CD54 PE antibody. We obtained >5.0 × 106 viable cells per 1.0 g of tissue that exhibited no cell differentiation. Exposure to 1.2 or 12 ng DST mL-1 stimulated the immune system activation and increased the proportion of activated macrophages and monocytes in 48 to 52% and in 127 to 146%, respectively. The protocol proved to be an alternative tool to assess the immunotoxic effects of DST exposure on fish's anterior kidney cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesar Aparecido da Silva
- Center for Marine Studies, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Beira-mar, s/n, P.O. Box: 61, Pontal do Paraná, PR 83255-976, Brazil.
| | - Luiz Laureno Mafra
- Center for Marine Studies, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Beira-mar, s/n, P.O. Box: 61, Pontal do Paraná, PR 83255-976, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Rodrigues Rossi
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Cel Francisco H dos Santos, Curitiba, PR 81530-980, Brazil
| | - Edvaldo da Silva Trindade
- Laboratory of Inflammatory and Neoplastic Cells/Laboratory of Sulfated Polysaccharides Investigation, Cell Biology Department, Federal University of Paraná, Av. Cel Francisco H dos Santos, Curitiba, PR 81530-980, Brazil
| | - William Gerson Matias
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Departament of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, P.O. Box 476, Florianópolis, SC 88010-970, Brazil
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Simultaneous determination of okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, dinophysistoxin-2, and dinophysistoxin-3 using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in raw and cooked food matrices. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Moreira-González AR, Rosa KMS, Mafra LL. Prevalence of okadaic acid in benthic organisms associated Prorocentrum lima complex in a sub-tropical estuary. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 39:382-396. [PMID: 34732112 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1992512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Lipophilic toxins were investigated in different benthic compartments of Paranaguá Bay, southern Brazil. Relatively low concentrations of okadaic acid (OA) were frequently reported in macrophyte extracts (maximum 0.64 ng g-1), mainly in sheltered estuarine areas, correlated with the cell abundance of toxigenic benthic dinoflagellates, Prorocentrum lima. Non-conjugated OA was also detected in benthic marine animals, mostly during summer-autumn 2016. Higher OA concentrations were found in the viscera of Genidens genidens fish (24.3 ± 3.7 ng g-1) and in soft tissues of Mytella guyanensis bivalves (21.3 ± 2.13 ng g-1), whereas lower levels were less frequently reported in many other benthic feeders, including cephalopods, gastropods, crustaceans and fishes. Although OA concentrations were below the levels associated with acute human intoxication, possible chronic effects to benthic animals and their consumers cannot be disregarded due to the frequent presence of this biotoxin in various fishery resources. Human health risks are substantially enhanced for small-scale fishing communities and other socioeconomically vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Ramón Moreira-González
- Departamento de Gestión y Ingeniería Ambiental, Centro de Estudos do Mar. Universidade Federal do Paraná, Paraná, Brazil.,Departamento de Gestión y Ingeniería Ambiental, Centro de Estudios Ambientales de Cienfuegos (CEAC), Cienfuegos, Cuba
| | - Kaianan Mauê Santos Rosa
- Departamento de Gestión y Ingeniería Ambiental, Centro de Estudos do Mar. Universidade Federal do Paraná, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Luiz Laureno Mafra
- Departamento de Gestión y Ingeniería Ambiental, Centro de Estudos do Mar. Universidade Federal do Paraná, Paraná, Brazil
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Effects of the Marine Biotoxins Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxins on Fish. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse9030293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Natural high proliferations of toxin-producing microorganisms in marine and freshwater environments result in dreadful consequences at the socioeconomically and environmental level due to water and seafood contamination. Monitoring programs and scientific evidence point to harmful algal blooms (HABs) increasing in frequency and intensity as a result of global climate alterations. Among marine toxins, the okadaic acid (OA) and the related dinophysistoxins (DTX) are the most frequently reported in EU waters, mainly in shellfish species. These toxins are responsible for human syndrome diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Fish, like other marine species, are also exposed to HABs and their toxins. However, reduced attention has been given to exposure, accumulation, and effects on fish of DSP toxins, such as OA. The present review intends to summarize the current knowledge of the impact of DSP toxins and to identify the main issues needing further research. From data reviewed in this work, it is clear that exposure of fish to DSP toxins causes a range of negative effects, from behavioral and morphological alterations to death. However, there is still much to be investigated about the ecological and food safety risks related to contamination of fish with DSP toxins.
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Corriere M, Baptista M, Paula JR, Repolho T, Rosa R, Costa PR, Soliño L. Impaired fish swimming performance following dietary exposure to the marine phycotoxin okadaic acid. Toxicon 2020; 179:53-59. [PMID: 32147514 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Fish are frequently exposed to harmful algal blooms (HAB) and to related toxins. However, the biological effects of okadaic acid (OA), the most abundant and frequent HAB-toxin in Europe, South America and Asia, have been poorly investigated. In this study, fish swimming performance and metabolic rates were investigated in juveniles of Zebra seabream (Diplodus cervinus) exposed to OA-group toxins via dietary route, during three days. Fish fed on contaminated food accumulated up to 455.5 μg OA equiv. Kg-1. Significant lower mean critical swimming speed (Ucrit) were observed in fish orally exposed to OA (and its related isomer dinophysistoxin-1, DTX-1) than fish feeding on non-toxic diet. A tendency to higher demands of oxygen consumption was also recorded in OA-exposed fish at higher current velocities. This study indicates that fish may not be affected by OA-group toxins under basal conditions, but suggests a decrease in fitness linked to a reduction in swimming performance of fish exposed to OA under increased stimulus. OA and related toxins are suggested to have a cryptic effect on swimming performance that may be enhanced when fish deals with multiple stressors. Considering that a reduction in swimming performance may have impact on critical activities, such as foraging and escaping from predators, this study highlights the ecological risk associated with dinoflagellate toxic blooms, biotoxins food web transfer and fish contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Corriere
- IPMA-Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006, Lisbon, Portugal; Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca per le Scienze Ambientali, Università di Bologna, Via Sant'Alberto, 163 - 48100, Ravenna, Italy
| | - Miguel Baptista
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - José R Paula
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Tiago Repolho
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Rui Rosa
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374, Cascais, Portugal
| | - Pedro Reis Costa
- IPMA-Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006, Lisbon, Portugal; CCMAR - Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Lucía Soliño
- IPMA-Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006, Lisbon, Portugal; CCMAR - Centre of Marine Sciences, University of Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal.
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Mafra LL, Nolli PKW, Mota LE, Domit C, Soeth M, Luz LFG, Sobrinho BF, Leal JG, Di Domenico M. Multi-species okadaic acid contamination and human poisoning during a massive bloom of Dinophysis acuminata complex in southern Brazil. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 89:101662. [PMID: 31672229 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
On June 2016, a major bloom of Dinophysis acuminata complex was noticed over the coast of Paraná State (PR), southern Brazil, an area unprotected by any official monitoring program. Here we report the results of an extensive sampling effort that ultimately led PR authorities to issue the first State shellfish-harvesting ban due to multi-species okadaic acid (OA) contamination. During its peak, the bloom covered an area of 201 km2 (∼2.0-3.5 × 54.0 km), attaining unprecedentedly high cell densities along the shallow (<15 m) continental shelf (mean 2.2 × 105, maximum 2.1 × 106 cells L-1) and adjacent sandy beaches (mean 2.8 × 105, maximum 5.2 × 106 cells L-1). Only OA was detected in suspension (max. 188 ng L-1). Toxin levels measured in bivalves were several times greater than the regulatory limit of 160 ng g-1, reaching up to 3600 ng g-1 in Crassostrea gasar, by far the highest OA concentrations ever reported in oysters worldwide, 7700 ng g-1 in brown mussels, Perna perna, and lower levels in clams, Anomalocardia brasiliana, and mangrove mussels, Mytella spp. Nine cases of human intoxication were officially reported and five people were hospitalized with typical symptoms of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning linked to the consumption of contaminated bivalves. All bivalves quickly converted most of the OA into its esterified form, DTX-3, and eliminated the toxins only a few weeks following the bloom, with C. gasar being the slowest-detoxifying species. Lower OA levels were accumulated in zooplankton, gastropods and several novel toxin vectors, including benthic organisms such as sand dollars Mellita quinquiesperforata and the ghost-shrimp Callichirus major, which may act as a good indicator of the presence of toxins in sandy beaches, and pelagic fish species that can serve as potential alternative sources of OA to humans (Chaetodipterus faber and Mugil liza). Monitoring toxin contamination in seafood other than bivalves is thus recommended to ensure comprehensive human health protection during massive Dinophysis blooms. Additionally, since OA was also present at low concentrations in the liver of Guiana dolphins Sotalia guianensis and penguins Spheniscus magellanicus, exposure to biotoxins should be considered in conservation actions involving threatened and near-threatened marine organisms in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Mafra
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil.
| | - P K W Nolli
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - L E Mota
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - C Domit
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - M Soeth
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - L F G Luz
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - B F Sobrinho
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - J G Leal
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
| | - M Di Domenico
- Centro de Estudos do Mar, Universidade Federal do Paraná. P.O. Box 61. Pontal do Paraná, PR, 83255-976, Brazil
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Diel Variations in Cell Abundance and Trophic Transfer of Diarrheic Toxins during a Massive Dinophysis Bloom in Southern Brazil. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10060232. [PMID: 29882830 PMCID: PMC6024776 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10060232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dinophysis spp. are a major source of diarrheic toxins to marine food webs, especially during blooms. This study documented the occurrence, in late May 2016, of a massive toxic bloom of the Dinophysis acuminata complex along the southern coast of Brazil, associated with an episode of marked salinity stratification. The study tracked the daily vertical distribution of Dinophysis spp. cells and their ciliate prey, Mesodinium cf. rubrum, and quantified the amount of lipophilic toxins present in seston and accumulated by various marine organisms in the food web. The abundance of the D. acuminata complex reached 43 × 10⁴ cells·L−1 at 1.0 m depth at the peak of the bloom. Maximum cell densities of cryptophyceans and M. cf. rubrum (>500 × 10⁴ and 18 × 10⁴ cell·L−1, respectively) were recorded on the first day of sampling, one week before the peak in abundance of the D. acuminata complex. The diarrheic toxin okadaic acid (OA) was the only toxin detected during the bloom, attaining unprecedented, high concentrations of up to 829 µg·L−1 in seston, and 143 ± 93 pg·cell−1 in individually picked cells of the D. acuminata complex. Suspension-feeders such as the mussel, Perna perna, and barnacle, Megabalanus tintinnabulum, accumulated maximum OA levels (up to 578.4 and 21.9 µg total OA·Kg−1, respectively) during early bloom stages, whereas predators and detritivores such as Caprellidae amphipods (154.6 µg·Kg−1), Stramonita haemastoma gastropods (111.6 µg·Kg−1), Pilumnus spinosissimus crabs (33.4 µg·Kg−1) and a commercially important species of shrimp, Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (7.2 µg·Kg−1), only incorporated OA from mid- to late bloom stages. Conjugated forms of OA were dominant (>70%) in most organisms, except in blenny fish, Hypleurochilus fissicornis, and polychaetes, Pseudonereis palpata (up to 59.3 and 164.6 µg total OA·Kg−1, respectively), which contained mostly free-OA throughout the bloom. Although algal toxins are only regulated in bivalves during toxic blooms in most countries, including Brazil, this study indicates that human seafood consumers might be exposed to moderate toxin levels from a variety of other vectors during intense toxic outbreaks.
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Mafra LL, Lopes D, Bonilauri VC, Uchida H, Suzuki T. Persistent Contamination of Octopuses and Mussels with Lipophilic Shellfish Toxins during Spring Dinophysis Blooms in a Subtropical Estuary. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:3920-35. [PMID: 26096277 PMCID: PMC4483663 DOI: 10.3390/md13063920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the occurrence of diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DSTs) and their producing phytoplankton species in southern Brazil, as well as the potential for toxin accumulation in co-occurring mussels (Perna perna) and octopuses (Octopus vulgaris). During the spring in 2012 and 2013, cells of Dinophysis acuminata complex were always present, sometimes at relatively high abundances (max. 1143 cells L-1), likely the main source of okadaic acid (OA) in the plankton (max. 34 ng L-1). Dinophysis caudata occurred at lower cell densities in 2013 when the lipophilic toxins pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) and PTX-2 seco acid were detected in plankton and mussel samples. Here, we report for the first time the accumulation of DSTs in octopuses, probably linked to the consumption of contaminated bivalves. Perna perna mussels were consistently contaminated with different DSTs (max. 42 µg kg-1), and all octopuses analyzed (n = 5) accumulated OA in different organs/tissues: digestive glands (DGs) > arms > gills > kidneys > stomach + intestine. Additionally, similar concentrations of 7-O-palmytoyl OA and 7-O-palmytoly dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) were frequently detected in the hepatopancreas of P. perna and DGs of O. vulgaris. Therefore, octopuses can be considered a potential vector of DSTs to both humans and top predators such as marine mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz L Mafra
- Center for Marine Studies, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 61, Pontal do Paraná, Paraná 83255-976, Brazil.
| | - Daiana Lopes
- Center for Marine Studies, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 61, Pontal do Paraná, Paraná 83255-976, Brazil.
| | - Vanessa C Bonilauri
- Center for Marine Studies, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 61, Pontal do Paraná, Paraná 83255-976, Brazil.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
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