Responsiveness, behavioural arousal and awareness in fetal and newborn lambs: experimental, practical and therapeutic implications

Toward assessing the role of dietary fatty acids in lamb's neurological and cognitive development

Understanding and measuring sheep cognition and behavior can provide us with measures to safeguard the welfare of these animals in production systems. Optimal neurological and cognitive development of lambs is important to equip individuals with the ability to better cope with environmental stressors. However, this development can be affected by nutrition with a special role from long-chain fatty acid supply from the dam to the fetus or in lamb's early life. Neurological development in lambs takes place primarily during the first two trimesters of gestation. Through late fetal and early postnatal life, the lamb brain has a high level of cholesterol synthesis. This rate declines rapidly at weaning and remains low throughout adulthood. The main polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the brain are ω-6 arachidonic acid and ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which are elements of plasma membranes' phospholipids in neuronal cells. DHA is essential for keeping membrane integrity and is vital for normal development of the central nervous system (CNS), and its insufficiency can damage cerebral functions and the development of cognitive capacities. In sheep, there is evidence that supplying PUFA during gestation or after birth may be beneficial to lamb productive performance and expression of species-specific behaviors. The objective of this perspective is to discuss concepts of ruminant behavior and nutrition and reflect on future research directions that could help to improve our knowledge on how dietary fatty acids (FA) relate to optimal neurological and cognitive development in sheep.

Proposed multidimensional pain outcome methodology to demonstrate analgesic drug efficacy and facilitate future drug approval for piglet castration

Castration of male piglets in the United States is conducted without analgesics because no Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved products are labeled for pain control in swine. The absence of approved products is primarily due to a wide variation in how pain is measured in suckling piglets and the lack of validated pain-specific outcomes individually indistinct from other biological responses, such as general stress or inflammation responses with cortisol. Simply put, to measure pain mitigation, measurement of pain must be specific, quantifiable, and defined. Therefore, given the need for mitigating castration pain, a consortium of researchers, veterinarians, industry, and regulatory agencies was formed to identify potential animal-based outcomes and develop a methodology, based on the known scientific research, to measure pain and the efficacy of mitigation strategies. The outcome-based measures included physiological, neuroendocrine, behavioral, and production parameters. Ultimately, this consortium aims to provide a validated multimodal methodology to demonstrate analgesic drug efficacy for piglet castration.Measurable outcomes were selected based on published studies suggesting their validity, reliability, and sensitivity for the direct or indirect measurement of pain associated with surgical castration in piglets. Outcomes to be considered are observation of pain behaviors (i.e. ethogram defined behaviors and piglet grimace scale), gait parameters measured with a pressure mat, infrared thermography of skin temperature of the cranium and periphery of the eye, and blood biomarkers. Other measures include body weight and mortality rate.This standardized measurement of the outcome variable's primary goal is to facilitate consistency and rigor by developing a research methodology utilizing endpoints that are well-defined and reliably measure pain in piglets. The resulting methodology will facilitate and guide the evaluation of the effectiveness of comprehensive analgesic interventions for 3- to 5-day-old piglets following surgical castration.

Slaughter of Pregnant Cattle at an Austrian Abattoir: Prevalence and Gestational Age

Simple Summary

Cattle constitute a major part of the livestock in Austria. Dairy cows are sent to slaughter at the end of their production cycle, whereas heifers are admitted to slaughter either after a fattening period or because of reproductive disorders. In several countries, evidence has been presented that pregnant female cattle are admitted to slaughter, with implications for animal welfare and meat quality. Until today, no data are available on the frequency of pregnant cattle slaughtered in Austria. Over a one-year period, we examined 1633 female cattle in one abattoir, and pregnancy was detected in 104 animals (6.4%). Sixteen cattle were in the last third of gestation. Percentages of pregnant cattle sent to slaughter were higher in beef and dual-purpose breeds than in dairy cattle, but this was not statistically significant. Measures to minimize the number of pregnant cattle sent to slaughter should be implemented at farm-level.

Abstract

The slaughter of pregnant cattle raises ethical–moral questions with regard to animal welfare, but also concerns of consumers because of higher levels of sex steroids in the meat from pregnant cattle. Since no data on the slaughter of pregnant cattle in Austria were available, we examined uteri of slaughtered female cattle in one Austrian mid-size abattoir. Sample size was calculated for an assumed prevalence of 2.5% (±1%; 95% confidence interval) of cows or heifers slaughtered in the last trimester of pregnancy and amounted to 870 cows and 744 heifers. 1633 female cattle of domestic origin were examined, most of them of dual-purpose type. Pregnancy was detected in 30/759 heifers and in 74/874 cows (an overall prevalence of 6.4%). The number of cattle in the last trimester of pregnancy was 16 to 26, depending on the evaluation scheme. We found no significant differences in percentages of pregnant cattle sent to slaughter for beef, dual-purpose and dairy breeds, although the latter group demonstrated the lowest percentage. Our results are comparable with those from previously conducted studies in other member states of the European Union. Measures to avoid sending pregnant cattle to slaughter should be implemented at farm-level.

Preparing for Life After Birth: Introducing the Concepts of Intrauterine and Extrauterine Sensory Entrainment in Mammalian Young

Presented is an updated understanding of the development of sensory systems in the offspring of a wide range of terrestrial mammals, the prenatal exposure of those systems to salient stimuli, and the mechanisms by which that exposure can embed particular sensory capabilities that prepare newborns to respond appropriately to similar stimuli they may encounter after birth. Taken together, these are the constituents of the phenomenon of "trans-natal sensory continuity" where the embedded sensory capabilities are considered to have been "learnt" and, when accessed subsequently, they are said to have been "remembered". An alternative explanation of trans-natal sensory continuity is provided here in order to focus on the mechanisms of "embedding" and "accessing" instead of the potentially more subjectively conceived outcomes of "learning" and "memory". Thus, the mechanistic concept of "intrauterine sensory entrainment" has been introduced, its foundation being the well-established neuroplastic capability of nervous systems to respond to sensory inputs by reorganising their neural structures, functions, and connections. Five conditions need to be met before "trans-natal sensory continuity" can occur. They are (1) sufficient neurological maturity to support minimal functional activity in specific sensory receptor systems in utero; (2) the presence of sensory stimuli that activate their aligned receptors before birth; (3) the neurological capability for entrained functions within specific sensory modalities to be retained beyond birth; (4) specific sensory stimuli that are effective both before and after birth; and (5) a capability to detect those stimuli when or if they are presented after birth in ways that differ (e.g., in air) from their presentation via fluid media before birth. Numerous beneficial outcomes of this process have been reported for mammalian newborns, but the range of benefits depends on how many of the full set of sensory modalities are functional at the time of birth. Thus, the breadth of sensory capabilities may be extensive, somewhat restricted, or minimal in offspring that are, respectively, neurologically mature, moderately immature, or exceptionally immature at birth. It is noted that birth marks a transition from intrauterine sensory entrainment to extrauterine sensory entrainment in all mammalian young. Depending on their neurological maturity, extrauterine entrainment contributes to the continuing maturation of the different sensory systems that are operational at birth, the later development and maturation of the systems that are absent at birth, and the combined impact of those factors on the behaviour of newborn and young mammals. Intrauterine sensory entrainment helps to prepare mammalian young for life immediately after birth, and extrauterine sensory entrainment continues this process until all sensory modalities develop full functionality. It is apparent that, overall, extrauterine sensory entrainment and its aligned neuroplastic responses underlie numerous postnatal learning and memory events which contribute to the maturation of all sensory capabilities that eventually enable mammalian young to live autonomously.

Potential benefit of a thoracic squeeze technique in two newborn calves delivered by caesarean section

Case History: Two calves delivered following elective caesarean section showed behaviour typical of neonatal maladjustment syndrome described in foals, i.e., indifference to environmental stimuli, lack of affinity for the dam, failure to find the udder, refusal to suck, aimless wandering or motionless standing. Calves were subjected to a clinical examination immediate after delivery and there were no signs of defects, illness, pain, dehydration, hypoxia, acidaemia or other causes for the unresponsive behaviour.Clinical Findings and Treatment: Both calves were subjected to the thoracic squeeze technique, one at 6 hours and the other at 20 hours after delivery. A soft rope was looped around the thorax and gentle pressure was applied to the free end of the rope, squeezing the calf's chest for 20 minutes. Both calves exhibited a sleep-like state manifested by closed eyes, no body movements, slow breathing and a decrease in heart rate, for the entire squeezing period. When the rope was removed the calves woke up immediately, rose and walked towards the dam. When led to the dam's udder, the weaker calf began to suck. Both were reported, by the stockperson, to follow the dam and suck normally the following day.Clinical Relevance: Provided all other disease processes are excluded, very young calves that exhibit indifference to environmental stimuli and lack of affinity for the dam may be good candidates for application of the thoracic squeeze technique that has been demonstrated to have clinical efficacy in foals with neonatal maladjustment syndrome.

Slaughter of Pregnant Cattle in Denmark: Prevalence, Gestational Age, and Reasons

The slaughter of pregnant cattle gives rise to ethical controversy. We estimated the prevalence of pregnant cattle, elucidated the reasons for their slaughter, and in light of our findings, discussed the ethics of sending pregnant cattle for slaughter. Among 825 female cattle >353 days of age admitted to a Danish abattoir, 187 (23%) were found to be pregnant. There was no apparent difference in the proportion of pregnant animals between dairy and non-dairy cattle. "Health"-related slaughter was most frequent in dairy herds (70%), whereas "production"-related slaughter was most frequent in non-dairy herds (63%). While many farmers considered it unethical to slaughter pregnant cows without a good reason for doing so, many dairy farmers identified animal welfare as an important parameter in the decision, which was typically when the general condition of the cow or heifer would make it difficult for her to pass through calving and subsequent lactation. The many pregnant animals sent for slaughter were often the result of deliberate choices. Non-dairy farmers often kept a bull with their female cattle, and in many instances, this resulted in the mating of cattle intended for slaughter. Although considered ethically problematic by many dairy farmers, the slaughter of pregnant dairy cattle was often considered better for the cow compared to a stressful lactation period.

Tail Docking of Canine Puppies: Reassessment of the Tail's Role in Communication, the Acute Pain Caused by Docking and Interpretation of Behavioural Responses

Simple Summary

Bans or restrictions on non-therapeutic tail docking of canine puppies are becoming more widespread. Justifications for constraining this practice have usually referred to hindrances to the tail contributing to unambiguous communication between different dogs, the marked acute pain presumed to be experienced during the docking procedure itself, the subsequent occurrence of chronic pain and heightened pain sensitivity, and other harmful complications. The present re-examination of these matters led to the following conclusions: first, the contribution the tail makes to canine communication has been seriously underestimated; second, the capacity of puppies to consciously experience any pain at the early ages docking is usually conducted has been markedly overestimated; third, the probability that docking causes significant chronic pain and an ongoing heightened pain sensitivity is reaffirmed as high; and fourth, other harmful effects are apparent, but their prevalence is not well documented. Nevertheless, it is concluded that, overall, the life-long negative welfare impacts of tail docking in puppies, especially impacts associated with impaired communication, as also the occurrence of chronic pain and heightened pain sensitivity, still strongly justify banning or restricting docking unless it is undertaken for therapeutic purposes.

Abstract

Laws, regulations and professional standards increasingly aim to ban or restrict non-therapeutic tail docking in canine puppies. These constraints have usually been justified by reference to loss of tail participation in communication between dogs, the acute pain presumed to be caused during docking itself, subsequent experiences of chronic pain and heightened pain sensitivity, and the occurrence of other complications. These areas are reconsidered here. First, a scientifically robust examination of the dynamic functional foundations, sensory components and key features of body language that are integral to canine communication shows that the role of the tail has been greatly underestimated. More specifically, it shows that tail behaviour is so embedded in canine communication that docking can markedly impede unambiguous interactions between different dogs and between dogs and people. These interactions include the expression of wide ranges of both negative and positive emotions, moods and intentions that are of daily significance for dog welfare. Moreover, all docked dogs may experience these impediments throughout their lives, which challenges assertions by opponents to such bans or restrictions that the tail is a dispensable appendage. Second, and in contrast, a re-examination of the sensory capacities of canine puppies reveals that they cannot consciously experience acute or chronic pain during at least the first week after birth, which is when they are usually docked. The contrary view is based on questionable between-species extrapolation of information about pain from neurologically mature newborns such as calves, lambs, piglets and human infants, which certainly can consciously experience pain in response to injury, to neurologically immature puppies which remain unconscious and therefore unable to experience pain until about two weeks after birth. Third, underpinned by the incorrect conclusion that puppies are conscious at the usual docking age, it is argued here that the well-validated human emotional drive or desire to care for and protect vulnerable young, leads observers to misread striking docking-induced behaviour as indicating that the puppies consciously experience significant acute pain and distress. Fourth, updated information reaffirms the conclusion that a significant proportion of dogs docked as puppies will subsequently experience persistent and significant chronic pain and heightened pain sensitivity. And fifth, other reported negative consequences of docking should also be considered because, although their prevalence is unclear, when they do occur they would have significant negative welfare impacts. It is argued that the present analysis strengthens the rationale for such bans or restrictions on docking of puppies by clarifying which of several justifications previously used are and are not scientifically supportable. In particular, it highlights the major roles the tail plays in canine communication, as well as the lifetime handicaps to communication caused by docking. Thus, it is concluded that non-therapeutic tail docking of puppies represents an unnecessary removal of a necessary appendage and should therefore be banned or restricted.

Animal welfare aspects in respect of the slaughter or killing of pregnant livestock animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses)

This scientific opinion addresses animal welfare aspects of slaughtering of livestock pregnant animals. Term of Reference (ToR) 1 requested assessment of the prevalence of animals slaughtered in a critical developmental stage of gestation when the livestock fetuses might experience negative affect. Limited data on European prevalence and related uncertainties necessitated a structured expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) exercise. Estimated median percentages of animals slaughtered in the last third of gestation are 3%, 1.5%, 0.5%, 0.8% and 0.2% (dairy cows, beef cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, respectively). Pregnant animals may be sent for slaughter for health, welfare, management and economic reasons (ToR2); there are also reasons for farmers not knowing that animals sent for slaughter are pregnant. Measures to reduce the incidence are listed. ToR3 asked whether livestock fetuses can experience pain and other negative affect. The available literature was reviewed and, at a second multidisciplinary EKE meeting, judgements and uncertainty were elicited. It is concluded that livestock fetuses in the last third of gestation have the anatomical and neurophysiological structures required to experience negative affect (with 90-100% likelihood). However, there are two different possibilities whether they perceive negative affect. It is more probable that the neurophysiological situation does not allow for conscious perception (with 66-99% likelihood) because of brain inhibitory mechanisms. There is also a less probable situation that livestock fetuses can experience negative affect (with 1-33% likelihood) arising from differences in the interpretation of the fetal electroencephalogram, observed responses to external stimuli and the possibility of fetal learning. Regarding methods to stun and kill livestock fetuses at slaughter (ToR4), sets of scenarios and respective actions take account of both the probable and less probable situation regarding fetal ability for conscious perception. Finally, information was collated on methods to establish the dam's gestational stage based on physical features of livestock fetuses (ToR5).

Pig castration: will the EU manage to ban pig castration by 2018?

BACKGROUND

In 2010, the 'European Declaration on alternatives to surgical castration of pigs' was agreed. The Declaration stipulates that from January 1, 2012, surgical castration of pigs shall only be performed with prolonged analgesia and/or anaesthesia and from 2018 surgical castration of pigs should be phased out altogether. The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe together with the European Commission carried out an online survey via SurveyMonkey© to investigate the progress made in different European countries. This study provides descriptive information on the practice of piglet castration across 24 European countries. It gives also an overview on published literature regarding the practicability and effectiveness of the alternatives to surgical castration without anaesthesia/analgesia.

RESULTS

Forty usable survey responses from 24 countries were received. Besides Ireland, Portugal, Spain and United Kingdom, who have of history in producing entire males, 18 countries surgically castrate 80% or more of their male pig population. Overall, in 5% of the male pigs surgically castrated across the 24 European countries surveyed, castration is performed with anaesthesia and analgesia and 41% with analgesia (alone). Meloxicam, ketoprofen and flunixin were the most frequently used drugs for analgesia. Procaine was the most frequent local anaesthetic. The sedative azaperone was frequently mentioned even though it does not have analgesic properties. Half of the countries surveyed believed that the method of anaesthesia/analgesia applied is not practicable and effective. However, countries that have experience in using both anaesthesia and post-operative analgesics, such as Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and The Netherlands, found this method practical and effective. The estimated average percentage of immunocastrated pigs in the countries surveyed was 2.7% (median = 0.2%), where Belgium presented the highest estimated percentage of immunocastrated pigs (18%).

CONCLUSION

The deadlines of January 1, 2012, and of 2018 are far from being met. The opinions on the animal-welfare-conformity and the practicability of the alternatives to surgical castration without analgesia/anaesthesia and the alternatives to surgical castration are widely dispersed. Although countries using analgesia/anaesthesia routinely found this method practical and effective, only few countries seem to aim at meeting the deadline to phase out surgical castration completely.

Slaughter of pregnant cattle in German abattoirs--current situation and prevalence: a cross-sectional study

Background

The slaughter of pregnant cattle and the fate of the foetuses are relatively new subjects in the field of animal welfare. The Scientific Committee on Veterinary Measures relating to Public Health (SCVPH), however, does not believe this topic to be a critical issue because of the hitherto supposed rare occurrence of this practice. Some previous studies though, contradict this assessment, emphasising its relevance to animal welfare. With regard to the heterogeneous study design of previous investigations, the objective of this study is to evaluate the current situation concerning the slaughter of pregnant cattle in different German abattoirs. Additionally, the prevalence was assessed semi-quantitatively on the basis of a cross-sectional, voluntary and anonymous survey that was conducted amongst senior veterinary students of the University of Leipzig from 2010 until 2013.

Results

Of 255 evaluable questionnaires, 157 (63.6 %) mention the slaughter of pregnant cattle, corresponding to 76.9 % of all visited abattoirs. Slaughter of pregnant cattle is reported often (>10 % of females) in 6 (3.8 %), frequently (1–10 % of females) in 56 (35.7 %), and rarely (<1 % of females) in 95 (60.5 %) of all cases (n = 157) respectively. About 50 % of these animals were reported to be in the second or third stage of gestation. 15 (10.6 %) of 142 questionnaires providing information about the foetus, state that the foetus showed visible vital signs after the death of the mother, but in one case the foetus was euthanized subsequently.

Conclusions

The results show that the slaughter of pregnant cattle is a common and widespread practice in German abattoirs. The SCVPH’s assumption that pregnant cattle are only slaughtered in rare exceptional cases can no longer be maintained. The high proportion of foetuses in the second and third gestational stage must also be considered. In this context the implementation of suitable studies and detailed analysis of the current situation is indispensable to ensure the high standards in animal welfare in Germany and Europe.

The effect of foetal bovine serum supplementation upon the lactate dehydrogenase cytotoxicity assay: Important considerations for in vitro toxicity analysis

The lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay is a commonly-used tool for assessing toxicity in vitro. However, anecdotal reports suggest that foetal bovine serum (FBS) may contain LDH at concentrations significant enough to interfere with the assay and thus reduce its sensitivity. A series of experiments were performed to determine whether addition of FBS to culture medium significantly elevated culture media LDH content, and whether replacement of FBS with heat inactivated foetal bovine serum (HI-FBS) reduced LDH content and interfered with cell response to cytotoxic challenge. The addition of FBS at 5, 10 and 15% final concentrations increased culture medium LDH content in a dose-dependent manner. The substitution of HI-FBS for FBS reduced culture medium LDH content and increased the dynamic range of the assay. Cell viability of the SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma and N27 rat mesencephalic neurone cell lines were significantly reduced as measured using the MTT reduction assay, whilst HI-FBS only affected toxicity response in a cell- and toxin-specific manner, although these effects were small. Hence, for cell lines with a high FBS requirement, the use of HI-FBS or alternative toxicity assays can be considered, or the use of alternative formulations, such as chemically-defined serum-free media, be adopted.

Ocular Fluid As a Replacement for Serum in Cell Cryopreservation Media

Cryostorage is of immense interest in biomedical research, especially for stem cell-based therapies and fertility preservation. Several protocols have been developed for efficient cryopreservation of cells and tissues, and a combination of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and fetal bovine serum (FBS) is commonly used. However, there is a need for an alternative to FBS because of ethical reasons, high cost, and risk of contamination with blood-borne diseases. The objective of the present study was to examine the possibility of using buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) ocular fluid (BuOF) to replace FBS in cryomedia. Frozen-thawed cells, which were cryopreserved in a cryomedia with BuOF, were assessed for viability, early and late apoptosis, and proliferation. Three cell lines (CHO, HEK, and C18-4), mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells, and primary cells, such as mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cells, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs), and mouse bone marrow cells (mBMCs), were cryopreserved in cryomedia containing 10% DMSO (D10) with 20% FBS (D10S20) or D10 with 20% BuOF (D10O20). For all three cell lines and mES cells cryopreserved in either D10S20 or D10O20, thawed cells showed no difference in cell viability or cell recovery. Western blot analysis of frozen-thawed-cultured cells revealed that the expression of Annexin V and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) proteins, and the ratio of BAX/BCL2 proteins were similar in all three cell lines, mES cells, and hPBMCs cryopreserved in D10S20 and D10O20. However, initial cell viability, cell recovery after culture, and PCNA expression were significantly lower in MEF cells, and the BAX/BCL2 protein ratio was elevated in mBMCs cryopreserved in D10O20. Biochemical and proteomic analysis of BuOF showed the presence of several components that may have roles in imparting the cryoprotective property of BuOF. These results encourage further research to develop an efficient serum-free cryomedia for several cell types using BuOF.

Survival implications of the development of behavioural responsiveness and awareness in different groups of mammalian young

This paper focuses on the development of behaviours that are critical for the survival of newborn and juvenile mammals of veterinary and wider biological interest. It provides an updated, integrated and comparative analysis of how postnatal maturation of sensory, motor and perceptual capacities support and constrain behavioural interactions between mammalian young and the mother, any littermates and the environment. Young that are neurologically exceptionally immature, moderately immature and mature at birth are compared, and include, for example, marsupial joeys, rodent pups and ruminant offspring. Mothers in these three groups exhibit distinctive patterns of birthing and postnatal care behaviours. To secure survival of the young, maternal care must compensate for behavioural inadequacies imposed by the limited sensory capacities the young possess at each stage. These sensory capacities develop in a predictable sequence in most mammals such that before birth the sequence progresses to an extent that parallels the degree of neurological maturity reached at birth. The extent of neurological maturity is likewise reflected in how long it takes after birth for the necessary brain circuit connectivity to develop sufficiently to support cortically based cognitive modulation of behaviour. This takes several months, days-to-weeks or minutes-to-hours in young that are, respectively, neurologically exceptionally immature, moderately immature, or mature at birth. Once achieved, cognitive awareness confers a high degree of behavioural flexibility that allows the young to respond more effectively to the unpredictability of their postnatal environments. It is shown that the onset of this cognitively based flexibility in the young of each group coincides with their first exposure to a variable environment that requires such behavioural flexibility.

HOW SHOULD THE WELFARE OF FETAL AND NEUROLOGICALLY IMMATURE POSTNATAL ANIMALS BE PROTECTED?

Legal protection of the welfare of prenatal animals has not previously been addressed as a discrete subject within the academic literature on animal welfare, ethics and law. This paper aims to rectify this by reviewing the protections (or absence of protections) provided for fetuses by existing legislation in various jurisdictions, and considering the extent to which legal protection of animal fetuses can be justified on animal welfare grounds. Questions related to the need to protect the welfare of neurologically immature postnatal animals are also considered. We argue that there are reasons to protect animal fetuses, both in order to protect fetuses themselves against possible suffering, and in order to protect the animals which fetuses will become against negative welfare impacts that originate prenatally. We review the science on whether fetuses can suffer, and argue that extant regulations do not fully reflect current scientific understanding. Following the precautionary principle, we further argue that regulators should consider the possibility that foetuses and neurologically immature postnatal animals may suffer due to subcortically based 'raw basic affects' (i.e. relatively undifferentiated experiences of discomfort suggested to be generated by neural processing at levels below the cerebral cortex). Furthermore we show that there are reasons for affording fetuses protection in order to safeguard the long-term welfare of future animals. However, it may be possible to provide such protection via rules or laws relating to the use of certain techniques and the management of pregnant animals, rather than via direct legal protection of fetuses themselves. In order to provide such protection effectively we need to know more about the relationship between maternal nutrition, stress, exercise, management and fetal health, and about the impact of the timing of a fetal insult on long-term postnatal welfare.

Evaluation of human platelet lysate versus fetal bovine serum for culture of mesenchymal stromal cells

Culture media for therapeutic cell preparations-such as mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs)-usually comprise serum additives. Traditionally, fetal bovine serum is supplemented in basic research and in most clinical trials. Within the past years, many laboratories adapted their culture conditions to human platelet lysate (hPL), which further stimulates proliferation and expansion of MSCs. Particularly with regard to clinical application, human alternatives for fetal bovine serum are clearly to be preferred. hPL is generated from human platelet units by disruption of the platelet membrane, which is commonly performed by repeated freeze and thaw cycles. Such culture supplements are notoriously ill-defined, and many parameters contribute to batch-to-batch variation in hPL such as different amounts of plasma, a broad range of growth factors and donor-specific effects. The plasma components of hPL necessitate addition of anticoagulants such as heparins to prevent gelatinization of hPL medium, and their concentration must be standardized. Labels for description of hPL-such as "xenogen-free," "animal-free" and "serum free"-are not used consistently in the literature and may be misleading if not critically assessed. Further analysis of the precise composition of relevant growth factors, attachment factors, microRNAs and exosomes will pave the way for optimized and defined culture conditions. The use of hPL has several advantages and disadvantages: they must be taken into account because the choice of cell culture additive has major impact on cell preparations.

"Humanized" stem cell culture techniques: the animal serum controversy

Cellular therapy is reaching a pinnacle with an understanding of the potential of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) to regenerate damaged tissue in the body. The limited numbers of these hMSCs in currently identified sources, like bone marrow, adipose tissue, and so forth, bring forth the need for their in vitro culture/expansion. However, the extensive usage of supplements containing xenogeneic components in the expansion-media might pose a risk to the post-transplantation safety of patients. This warrants the necessity to identify and develop chemically defined or “humanized” supplements which would make in vitro cultured/processed cells relatively safer for transplantation in regenerative medicine. In this paper, we outline the various caveats associated with conventionally used supplements of xenogenic origin and also portray the possible alternatives/additives which could one day herald the dawn of a new era in the translation of in vitro cultured cells to therapeutic interventions.

Galloping colts, fetal feelings, and reassuring regulations: putting animal-welfare science into practice

About a decade ago, concern was expressed that fetuses might suffer while dying in utero after the death of their dams. However, reference to already published literature provided compelling evidence that fetuses cannot consciously experience negative sensations or feelings, such as breathlessness and pain, and showed that, provided certain precautions are taken, they cannot suffer--their welfare is assured. In this article, I outline the major features of fetal and neonatal physiology that underlie this conclusion as it relates to fetuses that are neurologically exceptionally immature, moderately immature, or mature at birth. As an example of the practical application of this knowledge, I also show how the results of detailed studies reported in the biomedical literature, together with evolving understanding of the capacity of animals to experience negative sensations reported in the animal-welfare science literature, led to the development of international guidelines for the humane management of livestock fetuses when their dams are slaughtered commercially. I also highlight the notion that significant progress in the scientific understanding of animal welfare, and its applications, can be made by remaining open to knowledge developed in disciplines at the margins of or beyond those in the animal-welfare science, ethology, and veterinary sciences arenas.

Developmental changes in the electroencephalogram and responses to a noxious stimulus in anaesthetized tammar wallaby joeys (Macropus eugenii eugenii)

The tammar wallaby joey is born extremely immature and most of its neurological development occurs in the maternal pouch. It is not known at what in-pouch age functions such as conscious sensory perception commence. We determined the electroencephalographic (EEG) responses to noxious stimulation in lightly anaesthetized tammar wallaby joeys. Baseline median (F50) and spectral edge (F95) frequencies, total power (Ptot) and frequency spectra between 1 and 30 Hz of the EEG power spectrum were determined. Joeys aged less than 127 days showed little or no EEG activity. Prolonged periods of spontaneous EEG activity were present by 142 days. This activity increased, as did the power in all frequencies, while the duration of any intervening isoelectric periods decreased with increasing in-pouch age. EEG responses to a noxious stimulus (toe clamping) changed with increasing in-pouch age as there was no response from joeys aged 94-127 days (no EEG), a minimal decrease in the F50 in those aged between 142 and 181 days (P = 0.052) and a greater decrease in the F50 in those aged between 187 and 261 days (P < 0.001). The pattern of these changes, which presumably reflects anatomical and functional maturation of the cerebral cortex, is similar to, but develops more slowly than, that reported in the rat. The opening of the eyes and development of the pelage are discussed as markers of when brain development may be sufficient for joeys to consciously perceive noxious sensations including pain.

Comments on the sub-group reports of the EU Technical Expert Working Group on the revision of Directive 86/609/EEC on the protection of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes

A critical analysis is presented of the reports produced by four Technical Expert Working Group Sub-groups (SGs) on Ethical Review, Cost-Benefit, Authorisation and Scope, which were published on the EC website (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/lab_animals/ia_info_en.htm), as part of the European Commission (EC)s review of EU Directive 86/609 EEC. This is in addition to our official response to the internet consultation questionnaire, submitted to the Commission on behalf of FRAME. Whilst the respective SG reports were extensive and detailed, we have identified several shortcomings, and in particular, a frequent lack of consensus among the SG members, resulting in a lack of clear guidance for the EC on what the revised Directive should contain, with reference to a number of crucial issues. Such indecisiveness could lead to wide discrepancies in the approaches of the EC, the European Parliament and the EU Member States concerning many issues of importance to animal welfare and the implementation of alternatives to animal experiments. These concerns range from logistical issues, such as requirements for named officers in authorised establishments, and the recording and publishing of statistics on animal use, to ethical and scientific problems, including the use of non-human primates, local ethical review, and education and training on the essential link between the Three Rs concept and best scientific practice. In each case, the basis for our concerns is explained, and suggestions for improvements to be incorporated into the revised Directive are made, in the hope that the harmonisation of approaches to laboratory animal experimentation and the use of alternative methods in the Member States can be maximised.

Birth and hatching: Key events in the onset of awareness in the lamb and chick

The neuroanatomical and neurophysiological development of the embryo and fetus and unique features of the physiological environment of the fetal brain, features which are lost at birth, support recent conclusions that under normal circumstances awareness (or consciousness) is probably not exhibited by the ovine embryo-fetus before birth and that it appears for the first time only after birth. However, there has apparently been no evaluation of whether or not similar mechanisms modulate awareness-related functions in domestic chicks before and after hatching. This comparative review, in seeking to rectify this, arrived at the following conclusions. First, the neural apparatus of both lambs and chicks appears to be too immature to support any states resembling awareness during at least the first half of pregnancy or incubation. Second, electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, which evolves subsequently, shows that states of sleep-like unconsciousness are likely to be continuously present in lambs until after birth, and that such states at least predominate in chicks until after hatching. Third, as in fetal lambs, epochs of so-called 'wakefulness' previously reported in chick embryos do not seem likely to represent short periods of awareness in ovo. Fourth, several neurosuppressive mechanisms, with some unique features, also operate or have the potential to operate in chicks before hatching, but a dearth of published information currently hinders a full comparison with those demonstrated to operate in fetal lambs. Fifth, contradicting the intuitive perception that vocalisation pre-hatching by the chick indicates the presence of awareness, published evidence suggests that vocalisation before and during hatching occurs mostly during EEG states indicating sleep-like unconsciousness. Sixth, as seems to be the case for newborn lambs after birth, it is possible that demonstrable awareness may appear for the first time only after hatching in chicks, presumably through waning neurosuppression and burgeoning neuroactivation, but such awareness seems to take longer to manifest itself. However, additional research in chicks is recommended to further assess this suggestion. Particular attention should be given to the status of vocal interactions between hen and chick which begin several days before hatching, and to the operation of neurosuppressive and neuroactivating mechanisms throughout the last 40% of incubation and during and after hatching.

The importance of ‘awareness’ for understanding fetal pain

Our understanding of when the fetus can experience pain has been largely shaped by neuroanatomy. However, completion of the cortical nociceptive connections just after mid-gestation is only one part of the story. In addition to critically reviewing evidence for whether the fetus is ever awake or aware, and thus able to truly experience pain, we examine the role of endogenous neuro-inhibitors, such as adenosine and pregnanolone, produced within the feto-placental unit that contribute to fetal sleep states, and thus mediate suppression of fetal awareness. The uncritical view that the nature of presumed fetal pain perception can be assessed by reference to the prematurely born infant is challenged. Rigorously controlled studies of invasive procedures and analgesia in the fetus are required to clarify the impact of fetal nociception on postnatal pain sensitivity and neural development, and the potential benefits or harm of using analgesia in this unique setting.

Pain Detection and Amelioration in Animals on the Farm: Issues and Options

Pain in nonhuman animals is a difficult concept to identify and measure. This article briefly describes the consequences of pain in animals on the farm and explains the reasons for the minimal use of analgesics in farmed animals. Pain can have implications for both animal welfare and economics. The reasons for a low use of analgesics in farmed animals include the lack of recognition of animal pain owing to the apparent lack of anthropomorphically identifiable behavioral changes, concern over human food safety, and lack of research efforts to develop safe analgesics for farm use. Treatment cost relative to the benefits expected is another hindering factor. Interventions to minimize pain must begin with developing objective and practical measures for pain identification and measurement at the farm level. A suggested use of a combination of different behavioral and physiological indicators would help to identify pain in animals. To facilitate continued usage of the methodologies on the farm it also is necessary to evaluate the economic implication of the pain alleviation intervention.

Recent concerns about stunning and slaughter

This review summarises information that is relevant to concerns that have recently been expressed about stunning and slaughter. It is known that captive bolt stunning can result in brain material passing to the lungs via the jugular veins. If future studies show that BSE prions pass beyond the lungs to the edible carcass, there will be a move away from captive bolt stunning in large cattle towards electrical stunning. Greater use of electrical stunning in large cattle will increase the importance of blood splash in the beef industry. The theoretical causes of blood splash are reviewed to improve our understanding of this problem. In some situations it can be due to excessive venous pressure causing rupture of a capillary bed some distance from the source of the pressure rise, but it is not known whether this applies to electrical stunning. Gas stunning is replacing electrical stunning for poultry because it can reduce blood spots, which is a similar condition to blood splash. Several gas stunning methods are now being used, but it is not clear which of these is the most humane. Anoxic stunning leads to carcass convulsions and this causes more carcass damage. In fish, recent developments in electrical stunning are showing promise in overcoming problems with carcass damage. It is recommended that rock lobsters should be chilled or frozen before butchery, to ensure a humane death.

The humane collection of fetal bovine serum and possibilities for serum-free cell and tissue culture

Fetal bovine serum (FBS) is a common supplement to in vitro culture media. A workshop was organized to discuss whether or not fetuses might suffer when blood is withdrawn, and to discuss serum replacement methods. When bovine fetuses are exposed after slaughter of the dam, they can suffer only if they inflate their lungs with air and increase their blood oxygen to levels compatible with awareness. Preventing fetuses from breathing air or killing them by an efficient method, according to clearly defined safeguards, ensures that fetal blood collection is humane. Since serum is a supplement of unknown composition, which could be contaminated with unwanted factors, there are scientific and safety reasons for omitting FBS from culture media. Several media have been developed in which minimal or no animal derived components are present. Also, different cell types have been adapted to serum-free media. As yet, no standard serum free media are present, and each cell type requires its own medium composition. Among other recommendations, the establishment of a public database with information on cell types and their serum-free medium composition is proposed.

Animal welfare implications of neonatal mortality and morbidity in farm animals

Much has been learnt during the last 50 years about the causes of neonatal mortality and morbidity and about practical means for minimising them in newborn lambs, kids, bovine calves, deer calves, foals and piglets. The major causes of problems in these newborns are outlined briefly and include hypothermia due to excessive heat loss or to hypoxia-induced, starvation-induced or other forms of inhibited heat production. They also include maternal undernutrition, mismothering, infection and injury. The published literature reveals that the scientific investigations which clarified these causes and led to practical means for minimising the problems, involved iterative successions of self-reinforcing laboratory and field or clinical investigations conducted over many years. These studies focused largely on solutions to the problems, not on the suffering that the newborn might experience, so that an analysis of the associated welfare insults had not apparently been conducted until now. The present assessment focuses on potentially noxious subjective experiences the newborn may have. The account of the causes of neonatal mortality and morbidity outlined early in this review indicates that the key subjective experiences which require analysis in animal welfare terms are breathlessness, hypothermia, hunger, sickness and pain. Reference to documented responses of farm animals and, where appropriate, to human experience, suggests that breathlessness and hypothermia usually represent less severe neonatal welfare insults than do hunger, sickness and pain. Major science-based improvements in the management of pregnancy and birth have markedly reduced the overall amount of welfare compromise experienced by newborn farm animals and further improvements may be expected as knowledge is refined and extended in the future.

Using science to support ethical decisions promoting humane livestock slaughter and vertebrate pest control

Ethical principles guide decisions about what we consider to be right or wrong proposals and actions, so that when value judgements are made these engage us in ethics. Ethical thinking is clearly relevant to decisions about the way we treat animals, and such thinking has led to the commonly held view that animal use by people is acceptable provided that such use is humane. The ethical requirement that we treat animals humanely means that we must minimise the harms we do to all animals in our care or under our control. Accordingly, we must assess what harms are done to the animals, how bad each harm is in terms of its intensity and duration, what methods are available or can be developed to minimise each harm, and the relative effectiveness of those methods of harm minimisation. We must also seek to use the most humane methods currently available that can be practically applied. Ethically driven scientific evaluations of this sort have improved the humaneness of livestock slaughter and vertebrate pest control. For instance, detailed studies of different pre-slaughter stunning methods have validated their use to pre-empt the pain and distress that otherwise conscious animals would experience during the fatal neck cut and the short period of consciousness (sensibility) that follows it Likewise, reducing injuries caused by restraint traps has improved the humaneness of this vertebrate pest control method, and comparing the effects of different poisons has allowed the least humane ones to be identified. Difficult questions nevertheless remain at the problematic interface between quantitative scientific observations and their interpretation regarding the suffering that animals may experience, as well as questions about the relativities of different types of suffering.