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Sharma S, Mittal N, Banik BK. Chemistry and Therapeutic Aspect of Triazole: Insight into the Structure-activity Relationship. Curr Pharm Des 2023; 29:2702-2720. [PMID: 37916492 DOI: 10.2174/0113816128271288231023045049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
The triazole ring is a highly significant heterocycle that occurs naturally in many commodities and is a common feature in pharmaceuticals. Recently, heterocyclic compounds and their derivatives have been getting a lot of attention in medicinal chemistry because they have a lot of pharmacological and biological potential. For example, a lot of drugs have nitrogen-containing heterocyclic moieties. The triazole ring is often used as a bio-isostere of the oxadiazole nucleus. The oxygen atom in the oxadiazole nucleus is replaced by nitrogen in the triazole analogue. This article explores the pharmacological properties of the triazole moiety, including but not limited to antibacterial, analgesic, anticonvulsant, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antitubercular, antimalarial, antioxidant, antiviral, and other properties. Additionally, we discuss the diverse multi- target pharmacological activities exhibited by triazole-based compounds. Based on a literature review, it is evident that triazole-based chemicals hold significant potential for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Lords University, Alwar 301028, India
| | - Nitin Mittal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Lords University, Alwar 301028, India
| | - Bimal Krishna Banik
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, College of Sciences and Human Studies, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Kumar S, Khokra SL, Yadav A. Triazole analogues as potential pharmacological agents: a brief review. FUTURE JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2021; 7:106. [PMID: 34056014 PMCID: PMC8148872 DOI: 10.1186/s43094-021-00241-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background A large number of studies have recently reported that, because of their significant biological and pharmacological properties, heterocyclic compounds and their derivatives have attracted a strong interest in medicinal chemistry. The triazole nucleus is one of the most important heterocycles which has a feature of natural products as well as medicinal agents. Heterocyclic nitrogen is abundantly present in most medicinal compounds. The derivatization of triazole ring is based on the phenomenon of bio-isosteres in which substituted the oxygen atom of oxadiazole nucleus with nitrogen triazole analogue. Main text This review focuses on recent synthetic procedure of triazole moiety, which comprises of various pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antitubercular, anthelmintic, antioxidant, antimalarial, antiviral, etc.. Conclusion This review highlights the current status of triazole compounds as different multi-target pharmacological activities. From the literature survey, triazole is the most widely used compound in different potential activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Kumar
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136119 India
| | - Sukhbir Lal Khokra
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136119 India
| | - Akash Yadav
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana 136119 India
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Linking Aromatic Hydroxy Metabolic Functionalization of Drug Molecules to Structure and Pharmacologic Activity. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23092119. [PMID: 30142909 PMCID: PMC6225321 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23092119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug functionalization through the formation of hydrophilic groups is the norm in the phase I metabolism of drugs for the modification of drug action. The reactions involved are mainly oxidative, catalyzed mostly by cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes. The benzene ring, whether phenyl or fused with other rings, is the most common hydrophobic pharmacophoric moiety in drug molecules. On the other hand, the alkoxy group (mainly methoxy) bonded to the benzene ring assumes an important and sometimes essential pharmacophoric status in some drug classes. Upon metabolic oxidation, both moieties, i.e., the benzene ring and the alkoxy group, produce hydroxy groups; the products are arenolic in nature. Through a pharmacokinetic effect, the hydroxy group enhances the water solubility and elimination of the metabolite with the consequent termination of drug action. However, through hydrogen bonding, the hydroxy group may modify the pharmacodynamics of the interaction of the metabolite with the site of parent drug action (i.e., the receptor). Accordingly, the expected pharmacologic outcome will be enhancement, retention, attenuation, or loss of activity of the metabolite relative to the parent drug. All the above issues are presented and discussed in this review using selected members of different classes of drugs with inferences regarding mechanisms, drug design, and drug development.
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Badri PS, King JR, Polepally AR, McGovern BH, Dutta S, Menon RM. Dosing Recommendations for Concomitant Medications During 3D Anti-HCV Therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 2016; 55:275-95. [PMID: 26330025 PMCID: PMC4761011 DOI: 10.1007/s40262-015-0317-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The development of direct-acting antiviral (DAA) agents has reinvigorated the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection. The availability of multiple DAA agents and drug combinations has enabled the transition to interferon-free therapy that is applicable to a broad range of patients. However, these DAA combinations are not without drug-drug interactions (DDIs). As every possible DDI permutation cannot be evaluated in a clinical study, guidance is needed for healthcare providers to avoid or minimize drug interaction risk. In this review, we evaluated the DDI potential of the novel three-DAA combination of ombitasvir, paritaprevir, ritonavir, and dasabuvir (the 3D regimen) with more than 200 drugs representing 19 therapeutic drug classes. Outcomes of these DDI studies were compared with the metabolism and elimination routes of prospective concomitant medications to develop mechanism-based and drug-specific guidance on interaction potential. This analysis revealed that the 3D regimen is compatible with many of the drugs that are commonly prescribed to patients with hepatitis C virus infection. Where interaction is possible, risk can be mitigated by paying careful attention to concomitant medications, adjusting drug dosage as needed, and monitoring patient response and/or clinical parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prajakta S Badri
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics (R4PK), AbbVie, Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd, AP13A-3, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA.
| | - Jennifer R King
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics (R4PK), AbbVie, Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd, AP13A-3, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Akshanth R Polepally
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics (R4PK), AbbVie, Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd, AP13A-3, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Barbara H McGovern
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics (R4PK), AbbVie, Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd, AP13A-3, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Sandeep Dutta
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics (R4PK), AbbVie, Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd, AP13A-3, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Rajeev M Menon
- Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacometrics (R4PK), AbbVie, Inc., 1 North Waukegan Rd, AP13A-3, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
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Characterization of clinical and genetic risk factors associated with dyslipidemia after kidney transplantation. DISEASE MARKERS 2015; 2015:179434. [PMID: 25944971 PMCID: PMC4402561 DOI: 10.1155/2015/179434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
We determined the prevalence of dyslipidemia in a Japanese cohort of renal allograft recipients and investigated clinical and genetic characteristics associated with having the disease. In total, 126 patients that received renal allograft transplants between February 2002 and August 2011 were studied, of which 44 recipients (34.9%) were diagnosed with dyslipidemia at 1 year after transplantation. Three clinical factors were associated with a risk of having dyslipidemia: a higher prevalence of disease observed among female than male patients (P = 0.021) and treatment with high mycophenolate mofetil (P = 0.012) and prednisolone (P = 0.023) doses per body weight at 28 days after transplantation. The genetic association between dyslipidemia and 60 previously described genetic polymorphisms in 38 putative disease-associated genes was analyzed. The frequency of dyslipidemia was significantly higher in patients with the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) Bcl1 G allele than in those with the CC genotype (P = 0.001). A multivariate analysis revealed that the NR3C1 Bcl1 G allele was a significant risk factor for the prevalence of dyslipidemia (odds ratio = 4.6; 95% confidence interval = 1.8–12.2). These findings may aid in predicting a patient's risk of developing dyslipidemia.
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Schiffman SS, Rother KI. Sucralose, a synthetic organochlorine sweetener: overview of biological issues. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2013; 16:399-451. [PMID: 24219506 PMCID: PMC3856475 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2013.842523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Sucralose is a synthetic organochlorine sweetener (OC) that is a common ingredient in the world's food supply. Sucralose interacts with chemosensors in the alimentary tract that play a role in sweet taste sensation and hormone secretion. In rats, sucralose ingestion was shown to increase the expression of the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and two cytochrome P-450 (CYP) isozymes in the intestine. P-gp and CYP are key components of the presystemic detoxification system involved in first-pass drug metabolism. The effect of sucralose on first-pass drug metabolism in humans, however, has not yet been determined. In rats, sucralose alters the microbial composition in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), with relatively greater reduction in beneficial bacteria. Although early studies asserted that sucralose passes through the GIT unchanged, subsequent analysis suggested that some of the ingested sweetener is metabolized in the GIT, as indicated by multiple peaks found in thin-layer radiochromatographic profiles of methanolic fecal extracts after oral sucralose administration. The identity and safety profile of these putative sucralose metabolites are not known at this time. Sucralose and one of its hydrolysis products were found to be mutagenic at elevated concentrations in several testing methods. Cooking with sucralose at high temperatures was reported to generate chloropropanols, a potentially toxic class of compounds. Both human and rodent studies demonstrated that sucralose may alter glucose, insulin, and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) levels. Taken together, these findings indicate that sucralose is not a biologically inert compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan S. Schiffman
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Address correspondence to Susan S. Schiffman, PhD, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7911, USA. E-mail:
| | - Kristina I. Rother
- Section on Pediatric Diabetes & Metabolism, Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Obesity Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Kharb R, Sharma PC, Yar MS. Pharmacological significance of triazole scaffold. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2010; 26:1-21. [PMID: 20583859 DOI: 10.3109/14756360903524304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 333] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The triazole nucleus is one of the most important and well known heterocycles which is a common and integral feature of a variety of natural products and medicinal agents. Triazole nucleus is present as a core structural component in an array of drug categories such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiepileptic, antiviral, antineoplastic, antihypertensive, antimalarial, local anaesthetic, antianxiety, antidepressant, antihistaminic, antioxidant, antitubercular, anti-Parkinson's, antidiabetic, antiobesity and immunomodulatory agents, etc. The broad and potent activity of triazole and their derivatives has established them as pharmacologically significant scaffolds. The basic heterocyclic rings present in the various medicinal agents are 1,2,3-triazole and 1,2,4-triazole. A large volume of research has been carried out on triazole and their derivatives, which has proved the pharmacological importance of this heterocyclic nucleus. The present paper is an attempt to review the pharmacological activities reported for triazole derivatives in the current literature with an update of recent research findings on this nuclei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Kharb
- Sanjivani College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Khetri, India
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Chen Q, Stefanie W, Luo S, Chen Z. Simultaneous determination of five anti-epilepsy drugs in human plasma using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Sci China Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-010-4009-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Zhou SF, Liu JP, Chowbay B. Polymorphism of human cytochrome P450 enzymes and its clinical impact. Drug Metab Rev 2009; 41:89-295. [PMID: 19514967 DOI: 10.1080/03602530902843483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 502] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacogenetics is the study of how interindividual variations in the DNA sequence of specific genes affect drug response. This article highlights current pharmacogenetic knowledge on important human drug-metabolizing cytochrome P450s (CYPs) to understand the large interindividual variability in drug clearance and responses in clinical practice. The human CYP superfamily contains 57 functional genes and 58 pseudogenes, with members of the 1, 2, and 3 families playing an important role in the metabolism of therapeutic drugs, other xenobiotics, and some endogenous compounds. Polymorphisms in the CYP family may have had the most impact on the fate of therapeutic drugs. CYP2D6, 2C19, and 2C9 polymorphisms account for the most frequent variations in phase I metabolism of drugs, since almost 80% of drugs in use today are metabolized by these enzymes. Approximately 5-14% of Caucasians, 0-5% Africans, and 0-1% of Asians lack CYP2D6 activity, and these individuals are known as poor metabolizers. CYP2C9 is another clinically significant enzyme that demonstrates multiple genetic variants with a potentially functional impact on the efficacy and adverse effects of drugs that are mainly eliminated by this enzyme. Studies into the CYP2C9 polymorphism have highlighted the importance of the CYP2C9*2 and *3 alleles. Extensive polymorphism also occurs in other CYP genes, such as CYP1A1, 2A6, 2A13, 2C8, 3A4, and 3A5. Since several of these CYPs (e.g., CYP1A1 and 1A2) play a role in the bioactivation of many procarcinogens, polymorphisms of these enzymes may contribute to the variable susceptibility to carcinogenesis. The distribution of the common variant alleles of CYP genes varies among different ethnic populations. Pharmacogenetics has the potential to achieve optimal quality use of medicines, and to improve the efficacy and safety of both prospective and currently available drugs. Further studies are warranted to explore the gene-dose, gene-concentration, and gene-response relationships for these important drug-metabolizing CYPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Feng Zhou
- School of Health Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia.
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