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Varvel NH, Amaradhi R, Espinosa-Garcia C, Duddy S, Franklin R, Banik A, Alemán-Ruiz C, Blackmer-Raynolds L, Wang W, Honore T, Ganesh T, Dingledine R. Preclinical development of an EP2 antagonist for post-seizure cognitive deficits. Neuropharmacology 2023; 224:109356. [PMID: 36460083 PMCID: PMC9894535 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive comorbidities can substantially reduce quality of life in people with epilepsy. Inflammation is a component of all chronic diseases including epilepsy, as well as acute events like status epilepticus (SE). Neuroinflammation is the consequence of several broad signaling cascades including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-associated pathways. Activation of the EP2 receptor for prostaglandin E2 appears responsible for blood-brain barrier leakage and much of the inflammatory reaction, neuronal injury and cognitive deficit that follows seizure-provoked COX-2 induction in brain. Here we show that brief exposure of mice to TG11-77, a potent, selective, orally available and brain permeant EP2 antagonist, eliminates the profound cognitive deficit in Y-maze performance after SE and reduces delayed mortality and microgliosis, with a minimum effective i.p. dose (as free base) of 8.8 mg/kg. All in vitro studies required to submit an investigational new drug (IND) application for TG11-77 have been completed, and non-GLP dose range-finding toxicology in the rat identified no overt, organ or histopathology signs of toxicity after 7 days of oral administration at 1000 mg/kg/day. Plasma exposure in the rat was dose-linear between 15 and 1000 mg/kg dosing. TG11-77 thus appears poised to continue development towards the initial clinical test of the hypothesis that EP2 receptor modulation after SE can provide the first preventive treatment for one of the chief comorbidities of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas H Varvel
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Radhika Amaradhi
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Claudia Espinosa-Garcia
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Steven Duddy
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Ronald Franklin
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Avijit Banik
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Carlos Alemán-Ruiz
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Lisa Blackmer-Raynolds
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Wenyi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Tage Honore
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia
| | - Thota Ganesh
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia.
| | - Raymond Dingledine
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, Georgia.
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Langmia IM, Just KS, Yamoune S, Brockmöller J, Masimirembwa C, Stingl JC. CYP2B6 Functional Variability in Drug Metabolism and Exposure Across Populations-Implication for Drug Safety, Dosing, and Individualized Therapy. Front Genet 2021; 12:692234. [PMID: 34322158 PMCID: PMC8313315 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.692234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is well-known that individual genetic make-up is one of the causative factors of ADRs. Approximately 14 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are distributed throughout the entire human genome and every patient has a distinct genetic make-up which influences their response to drug therapy. Cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6) is involved in the metabolism of antiretroviral, antimalarial, anticancer, and antidepressant drugs. These drug classes are commonly in use worldwide and face specific population variability in side effects and dosing. Parts of this variability may be caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the CYP2B6 gene that are associated with altered protein expression and catalytic function. Population variability in the CYP2B6 gene leads to changes in drug metabolism which may result in adverse drug reactions or therapeutic failure. So far more than 30 non-synonymous variants in CYP2B6 gene have been reported. The occurrence of these variants show intra and interpopulation variability, thus affecting drug efficacy at individual and population level. Differences in disease conditions and affordability of drug therapy further explain why some individuals or populations are more exposed to CYP2B6 pharmacogenomics associated ADRs than others. Variabilities in drug efficacy associated with the pharmacogenomics of CYP2B6 have been reported in various populations. The aim of this review is to highlight reports from various ethnicities that emphasize on the relationship between CYP2B6 pharmacogenomics variability and the occurrence of adverse drug reactions. In vitro and in vivo studies evaluating the catalytic activity of CYP2B6 variants using various substrates will also be discussed. While implementation of pharmacogenomic testing for personalized drug therapy has made big progress, less data on pharmacogenetics of drug safety has been gained in terms of CYP2B6 substrates. Therefore, reviewing the existing evidence on population variability in CYP2B6 and ADR risk profiles suggests that, in addition to other factors, the knowledge on pharmacogenomics of CYP2B6 in patient treatment may be useful for the development of personalized medicine with regards to genotype-based prescription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Immaculate M. Langmia
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Katja S. Just
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sabrina Yamoune
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jürgen Brockmöller
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Collen Masimirembwa
- African Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology (AiBST), Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Julia C. Stingl
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Aachen, Germany
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Hakkola J, Hukkanen J, Turpeinen M, Pelkonen O. Inhibition and induction of CYP enzymes in humans: an update. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3671-3722. [PMID: 33111191 PMCID: PMC7603454 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02936-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme family is the most important enzyme system catalyzing the phase 1 metabolism of pharmaceuticals and other xenobiotics such as herbal remedies and toxic compounds in the environment. The inhibition and induction of CYPs are major mechanisms causing pharmacokinetic drug–drug interactions. This review presents a comprehensive update on the inhibitors and inducers of the specific CYP enzymes in humans. The focus is on the more recent human in vitro and in vivo findings since the publication of our previous review on this topic in 2008. In addition to the general presentation of inhibitory drugs and inducers of human CYP enzymes by drugs, herbal remedies, and toxic compounds, an in-depth view on tyrosine-kinase inhibitors and antiretroviral HIV medications as victims and perpetrators of drug–drug interactions is provided as examples of the current trends in the field. Also, a concise overview of the mechanisms of CYP induction is presented to aid the understanding of the induction phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jukka Hakkola
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Oulu, POB 5000, 90014, Oulu, Finland.,Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Medical Research Center Oulu, University of Oulu and Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
| | - Janne Hukkanen
- Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.,Research Unit of Internal Medicine, Medical Research Center Oulu, University of Oulu and Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
| | - Miia Turpeinen
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Oulu, POB 5000, 90014, Oulu, Finland.,Administration Center, Medical Research Center Oulu, University of Oulu and Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
| | - Olavi Pelkonen
- Research Unit of Biomedicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Oulu, POB 5000, 90014, Oulu, Finland.
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Stereoselective Ketamine Metabolism by Genetic Variants of Cytochrome P450 CYP2B6 and Cytochrome P450 Oxidoreductase. Anesthesiology 2019; 129:756-768. [PMID: 30085944 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000002371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THIS TOPIC WHAT THIS ARTICLE TELLS US THAT IS NEW: BACKGROUND:: Human ketamine N-demethylation to norketamine in vitro at therapeutic concentrations is catalyzed predominantly by the cytochrome P4502B6 isoform (CYP2B6). The CYP2B6 gene is highly polymorphic. CYP2B6.6, the protein encoded by the common variant allele CYP2B6*6, exhibits diminished ketamine metabolism in vitro compared with wild-type CYP2B6.1. The gene for cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR), an obligatory P450 coenzyme, is also polymorphic. This investigation evaluated ketamine metabolism by genetic variants of human CYP2B6 and POR. METHODS CYP2B6 (and variants), POR (and variants), and cytochrome b5 (wild-type) were coexpressed in a cell system. All CYP2B6 variants were expressed with wild-type POR and b5. All POR variants were expressed with wild-type CYP2B6.1 and b5. Metabolism of R- and S-ketamine enantiomers, and racemic RS-ketamine to norketamine enantiomers, was determined using stereoselective high-pressure liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters were determined. RESULTS For ketamine enantiomers and racemate, metabolism (intrinsic clearance) was generally wild-type CYP2B6.1 > CYP2B6.4 > CYP2B6.26, CYP2B6.19, CYP2B6.17, CYP2B6.6 > CYP2B6.5, CYP2B6.7 > CYP2B6.9. CYP2B6.16 and CYP2B6.18 were essentially inactive. Activity of several CYP2B6 variants was less than half that of CYP2B6.1. CYP2B6.9 was 15 to 35% that of CYP2B6.1. The order of metabolism was wild-type POR.1 > POR.28, P228L > POR.5. CYP2B6 variants had more influence than POR variants on ketamine metabolism. Neither CYP2B6 nor POR variants affected the stereoselectivity of ketamine metabolism (S > R). CONCLUSIONS Genetic variants of CYP2B6 and P450 oxidoreductase have diminished ketamine N-demethylation activity, without affecting the stereoselectivity of metabolism. These results suggest candidate genetic polymorphisms of CYP2B6 and P450 oxidoreductase for clinical evaluation to assess consequences for ketamine pharmacokinetics, elimination, bioactivation, and therapeutic effects.
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Wang PF, Neiner A, Lane TR, Zorn KM, Ekins S, Kharasch ED. Halogen Substitution Influences Ketamine Metabolism by Cytochrome P450 2B6: In Vitro and Computational Approaches. Mol Pharm 2019; 16:898-906. [PMID: 30589555 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b01214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Ketamine is analgesic at anesthetic and subanesthetic doses, and it has been used recently to treat depression. Biotransformation mediates ketamine effects, influencing both systemic elimination and bioactivation. CYP2B6 is the major catalyst of hepatic ketamine N-demethylation and metabolism at clinically relevant concentrations. Numerous CYP2B6 substrates contain halogens. CYP2B6 readily forms halogen-protein (particularly Cl-π) bonds, which influence substrate selectivity and active site orientation. Ketamine is chlorinated, but little is known about the metabolism of halogenated analogs. This investigation evaluated halogen substitution effects on CYP2B6-catalyzed ketamine analogs N-demethylation in vitro and modeled interactions with CYP2B6 using various computational approaches. Ortho phenyl ring halogen substituent changes caused substantial (18-fold) differences in Km, on the order of Br (bromoketamine, 10 μM) < Cl < F < H (deschloroketamine, 184 μM). In contrast, Vmax varied minimally (83-103 pmol/min/pmol CYP). Thus, apparent substrate binding affinity was the major consequence of halogen substitution and the major determinant of N-demethylation. Docking poses of ketamine and analogs were similar, sharing a π-stack with F297. Libdock scores were deschloroketamine < bromoketamine < ketamine < fluoroketamine. A Bayesian log Km model generated with Assay Central had a ROC of 0.86. The probability of activity at 15 μM for ketamine and analogs was predicted with this model. Deschloroketamine scores corresponded to the experimental Km, but the model was unable to predict activity with fluoroketamine. The binding pocket of CYP2B6 also suggested a hydrophobic component to substrate docking, on the basis of a strong linear correlation ( R2 = 0.92) between lipophilicity ( Alog P) and metabolism (log Km) of ketamine and analogs. This property may be the simplest design criteria to use when considering similar compounds and CYP2B6 affinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan-Fen Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology , Duke University School of Medicine , Durham , North Carolina 27710 , United States
| | - Alicia Neiner
- Department of Anesthesiology , Washington University in St. Louis , St. Louis , Missouri 63130 , United States
| | - Thomas R Lane
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 , Raleigh , North Carolina 27606 , United States
| | - Kimberley M Zorn
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 , Raleigh , North Carolina 27606 , United States
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510 , Raleigh , North Carolina 27606 , United States
| | - Evan D Kharasch
- Department of Anesthesiology , Duke University School of Medicine , Durham , North Carolina 27710 , United States
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Ashraf MW, Peltoniemi MA, Olkkola KT, Neuvonen PJ, Saari TI. Semimechanistic Population Pharmacokinetic Model to Predict the Drug-Drug Interaction Between S-ketamine and Ticlopidine in Healthy Human Volunteers. CPT-PHARMACOMETRICS & SYSTEMS PHARMACOLOGY 2018; 7:687-697. [PMID: 30091858 PMCID: PMC6202471 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Low‐dose oral S‐ketamine is increasingly used in chronic pain therapy, but extensive cytochrome P450 (CYP) mediated metabolism makes it prone to pharmacokinetic drug‐drug interactions (DDIs). In our study, concentration‐time data from five studies were used to develop a semimechanistic model that describes the ticlopidine‐mediated inhibition of S‐ketamine biotransformation. A mechanistic model was implemented to account for reversible and time‐dependent hepatic CYP2B6 inactivation by ticlopidine, which causes elevated S‐ketamine exposure in vivo. A pharmacokinetic model was developed with gut wall and hepatic clearances for S‐ketamine, its primary metabolite norketamine, and ticlopidine. Nonlinear mixed effects modeling approach was used (NONMEM version 7.3.0), and the final model was evaluated with visual predictive checks and the sampling‐importance‐resampling procedure. Our final model produces biologically plausible output and demonstrates that ticlopidine is a strong inhibitor of CYP2B6 mediated S‐ketamine metabolism. Simulations from our model may be used to evaluate chronic pain therapy with S‐ketamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad W Ashraf
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Marko A Peltoniemi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Division of Perioperative Services, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Klaus T Olkkola
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pertti J Neuvonen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teijo I Saari
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Division of Perioperative Services, Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
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Zhang Q, Zhong Z, Li B, Liao Z, Zhao P, Ye Z, He X, Wang H, Chen W, Huang J. Effects of different CYP2C19 genotypes on prognosis of patients complicated with atrial fibrillation taking clopidogrel after PCI. Exp Ther Med 2018; 16:3492-3496. [PMID: 30233700 PMCID: PMC6143891 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2018.6650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The effects of different cytochrome P450 2C19 (CYP2C19) genotypes on the prognosis of clopidogrel resistance in patients complicated with atrial fibrillation taking clopidogrel after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) were investigated. Eighty patients who were complicated with atrial fibrillation and treated with clopidogrel antiplatelet therapy after PCI in Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University from September 2015 to January 2017 were selected, and divided into two groups according to the CYP2C19 genotype: extensive metabolism (EM) group and poor metabolism (PM) group. The related risk factors of clopidogrel resistance were determined, and the platelet aggregation rate and clopidogrel resistance rate were compared between the two groups during treatment. Non-fatal myocardial infarction and serious life-threatening complications in the two groups were observed. The increased total cholesterol level and the history of smoking and drinking were the independent risk factors of atrial fibrillation after PCI. The platelet aggregation rates in the EM group at 1, 3 and 12 months after medication were significantly lower than those in the PM group in the same period (P<0.05). The clopidogrel resistance rates in EM group before medication and at 1, 3 and 12 months after medication were higher than those in PM group in the same period (P<0.05). The onset time of non-fatal myocardial infarction in EM group was earlier than that in PM group (P<0.05), the infarct area was larger than that in PM group (P<0.05), and the left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) after onset was lower than that in PM group (P<0.05). In conclusion, the increased total cholesterol level and the history of smoking and drinking are the independent risk factors of clopidogrel resistance in patients complicated with atrial fibrillation after PCI. The incidence rates of cardiac complications are increased significantly in patients with PM CYP2C19 genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qifeng Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Zhixiong Zhong
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Zhengxian Liao
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Pingsen Zhao
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Zhuolian Ye
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Xuebo He
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Wenhao Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
| | - Junping Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Meizhou Hospital Affiliated to Zhongshan University, Meizhou, Guangdong 514031, P.R. China
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Kharasch ED, Crafford A. Common Polymorphisms of CYP2B6 Influence Stereoselective Bupropion Disposition. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2018; 105:142-152. [PMID: 29756345 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.1116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bupropion hydroxylation is a bioactivation and metabolic pathway, and the standard clinical CYP2B6 probe. This investigation determined the influence of CYP2B6 allelic variants on clinical concentrations and metabolism of bupropion enantiomers. Secondary objectives evaluated the influence of CYP2C19 and P450 oxidoreductase variants. Healthy volunteers in specific cohorts (CYP2B6*1/*1, CYP2B6*1/*6, CYP2B6*6/*6, and also CYP2B6*4 carriers) received single-dose oral bupropion. Plasma and urine bupropion and hydroxybupropion was quantified. Subjects were also genotyped for CYP2C19 and P450 oxidoreductase variants. Hydroxylation of both bupropion enantiomers, assessed by plasma hydroxybupropion/bupropion AUC ratios and urine hydroxybupropion formation clearances, was lower in CYP2B6*6/*6 but not CYP2B6*1/*6 compared with CYP2B6*1/*1 genotypes, and numerically greater in CYP2B6*4 carriers. CYP2C19 and P450 oxidoreductase variants did not influence bupropion enantiomers hydroxylation or plasma concentrations. The results show that clinical hydroxylation of both bupropion enantiomers was equivalently influenced by CYP2B6 allelic variation. CYP2B6 polymorphisms affect S-bupropion bioactivation, which may affect therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan D Kharasch
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy and Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Amanda Crafford
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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Palacharla RC, Molgara P, Panthangi HR, Boggavarapu RK, Manoharan AK, Ponnamaneni RK, Ajjala DR, Nirogi R. Methoxsalen as an in vitro phenotyping tool in comparison with 1-aminobenzotriazole. Xenobiotica 2018; 49:169-176. [DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2018.1434913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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