Rapid weight gain in professional boxing and correlation with fight decisions: analysis from 71 title fights

The Practice of Weight Loss in Combat Sports Athletes: A Systematic Review

The aim of this systematic review is to comprehensively assess the weight loss (WL) practices in different combat sports (CS). The review protocol was preregistered with PROSPERO [CRD42023487196]. Three databases were searched (Web of Science, EBSCOhost, and PubMed) until 8 December 2023. Eligible studies had to meet five criteria: they must have been (a) written in English, (b) published in a peer-reviewed journal, (c) used a survey design to investigate the WL practices of CS athletes, and (d) reported the WL methods used by athletes using a five-point scale. Twenty-six studies (3994 participants from 14 CS) were included. This review found that (1) WL is highly prevalent in CS athletes; (2) many CS athletes started losing weight for competition as teenagers two to three times a year; (3) CS athletes usually lose <5% body weight in 7-14 days before competition; (4) increasing exercise and gradually dieting are the most commonly used WL methods; and (5) the influence of scientific practitioners on athletes is negligible. The habitual practices of CS athletes may be relatively harmless, but in some special cases, CS athletes also perform extreme WL practices. Scientific practitioners have little influence on their WL practices, which may form a vicious cycle of non-qualified influence.

Weight regain, body composition, and metabolic responses to weight loss in weight cycling athletes: A systematic review and meta-analyses

Depending on the nature of their sports, athletes may be engaged in successive weight loss (WL) and regain, conducing to "weight cycling." The aims of this paper were to systematically (and meta-analytically when possible) analyze the post-WL recovery of (i) body weight and (ii) fat mass; fat-free mass; and performance and metabolic responses in weight cycling athletes (18-55 years old, body mass index < 30 kg.m-2 ). MEDLINE, Embase, and SPORTDiscus databases were explored. The quality and risk of bias of the 74 included studies were assessed using the quality assessment tool for quantitative studies. Thirty-two studies were eligible for meta-analyses. Whatever the type of sports or methods used to lose weight, post-WL body weight does not seem affected compared with pre-WL. While similar results are observed for fat-free mass, strength sports athletes (also having longer WL and regain periods) do not seem to fully recover their initial fat mass (ES: -0.39, 95% CI: [-0.77; -0.00], p = 0.048, I2  = 0.0%). Although the methods used by athletes to achieve WL might prevent them from a potential post-WL fat overshooting, further studies are needed to better understand WL episodes consequences on athletes' performance as well as short- and long-term physical, metabolic, and mental health.

Rapid Weight Gain and Weight Differential Predict Competitive Success in 2100 Professional Combat-Sport Athletes

PURPOSE

Combat-sport athletes commonly undergo rapid weight loss prior to prebout weigh-in and subsequently rapid weight gain (RWG) prior to competition. This investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of RWG and weight differential (WD) between opponents on competitive success.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was performed using data from professional mixed martial arts (MMA) and boxing events held between 2015 and 2019. The primary outcome was RWG (relative and absolute) between weigh-in and competition stratified by bout winners and losers. Binary logistic regression was used to explore the relationships among bout outcome, RWG, and WD between competitors on the day of their bout.

RESULTS

Among 708 MMA athletes included, winners regained more relative body mass (8.7% [3.7%] vs 7.9% [3.8%], P < .01) than losers. In 1392 included male boxers, winners regained significantly more relative body mass (8.0% [3.0%] vs 6.9% [3.2%], P < .01) than losers. Each percentage body mass increase resulted in a 7% increased likelihood of victory in MMA and a 13% increase in boxing. The relationship between RWG and competitive success remained significant in regional and male international MMA athletes, as well as boxers. WD predicted victory in international mixed martial artists and boxers. WD predicted victory by knockout or technical knockout in international MMA athletes and regional boxers.

CONCLUSION

This analysis of combat-sport athletes indicates that RWG and WD influence competitive success. These findings raise fair-play and safety concerns in these popular sports and may help guide risk-mitigating regulation strategies.

Rapid weight gain predicts fight success in mixed martial arts - evidence from 1,400 weigh-ins

We aimed to analyze whether rapid weight gain (RWG) between the official weigh-in and the time of the fight was associated with fight success in MMA. A total of 700 professional MMA fights involving 1,400 weigh-ins from 21 MMA promotions regulated by the California State Athletic Commission were analyzed. Multilevel logistic regression accounting for individual (i.e. athlete) and cluster levels (i.e. fights) was used to analyze the association of all measures with a theoretical relationship with the dependent variable and without interdependency with one another (i.e. %RWG, sex, body mass division, competition level) with the fight outcome (i.e. win or loss). The odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated. The highest mean %RWG was found for the flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, and lightweight divisions. The %RWG significantly predicted the fight outcome (ß = 0.044; OR = 1.045; 95%CI = 1.014-1.078; p = 0.005) so that for each 1% of additional RWG, the chance of winning increased by 4.5%. With the largest sample to date and in a "real-world" scenario, the present results suggest that the magnitude of RWG is linked to the chance of winning in MMA combats. It is suggested that regulatory commissions, confederations, and event organisers should consider regulating RWG, considering that, despite its detrimental impact on the athletes' health and performance, the potential advantage might stimulate athletes to invest in rapid weight loss, followed by gain after the official weigh-in to increase their chance of winning.

Rapid weight gain following weight cutting in male professional boxers

OBJECTIVES

Weight classifications are used in boxing and other combat sports to match opponents of similar size. Professional boxers commonly engage in a potentially harmful practice known as rapid weight loss or 'weight cutting' to make weight the day prior to competition before rehydrating and refueling. This investigation describes the prevalence and magnitude of rapid weight gain in boxers following weigh-in as well as differences in practice with respect to weight class and promotion.

METHODS

This analysis describes official weight data from male professional boxers collected by the California State Athletic Commission between 2015 and 2018. A total of 399 athletes were included in the study.

RESULTS

Among included athletes, 389 (97.5%) athletes gained weight between official weigh-in and competition. Total absolute body mass gained was 4.4 ± 2.2 kg corresponding to a total relative body mass gain of 7.2 ± 3.5%. Boxers competing in international promotions gained significantly more body mass than regional competitors (8.0 ± 3.0% vs. 6.6 ± 3.7%; p < 0.001). In total, 82 (20.6%) athletes gained 10% body mass or more before competition. More international competitors reached this 10% threshold than regional competitors (25.3% vs. 17.4%; p = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate high prevalence and magnitude of RWG in professional boxing, particularly in boxers competing in elite international promotions.

Effect of Rapid Weight Loss on Hydration Status and Performance in Elite Judo Athletes

Background: This study aimed to investigate the effect of 5% rapid weight loss on hydration status and judo performance in highly trained judo athletes. Methods: Eighteen male judo athletes participated in the study and were divided into two groups: control and rapid weight loss (RWL). RWL athletes were given 48 h to cut 5% of their body mass while the control group followed their routines. Athletes performed three measurements, including hydration, body mass and three consecutive special judo fitness tests (SJFTs). At the 1st and 6th minutes following each SJFT and 1st, 6th and 15th minutes following the last SJFT, blood lactate and heart rate (HR) was monitored. Results: The effect of RWL on variables was tested with split-plot ANOVA. RWL significantly affected urine specific gravity with a higher value following weight loss compared to baseline and recovery (F2-32 = 13.2, p < 0.001). In addition, athletes’ SJFT total throw numbers differed among measurements (F2-32 = 7.70, p < 0.001). Athletes presented worse SJFT index after weight loss (F2-32 = 8.05, p = 0.01; F1-16 = 6.43, p = 0.02, respectively). HR changed significantly among measurements days and times (F28-448 = 143.10, p < 0.001). Conclusion: RWL induced dehydration and impaired heart rate recovery in highly trained judo athletes, and they could not rehydrate between competition simulated weigh-in and 15 h of recovery.

Performance Alteration Induced by Weight Cutting in Mixed Martial Arts-A Biomechanical Pilot Investigation

Currently, there are pros and cons of research results related to weight cutting in combat sports, resulting in inconclusive results regarding the effects of weight-cut on athletes’ performance, and biomechanical investigations are hardly seen. Therefore, this pilot study tried to fill the gap by initiating an exploration in real-life competitions. It is our hope to add biomechanical insights (advantages/disadvantages) that would discern the impact of weight cutting on competitive performance and help to structure hypotheses in future research. The method consisted of 3D motion capture, EMG measurement and biomechanical modeling. Through the synchronized data, striking power, striking accuracy and reaction time were quantitatively determined. Pre- and post-test design was used to test common strikes before weight cutting and 24 h after weigh-in. Seven male athletes from local clubs were tested during regional competitions. Results were characterized by using descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) and T-tests were performed to contrast differences between the pre- and post-tests. This pilot study has revealed that there is actually weight-regain instead of weight-loss. The weight-regain would speed up the perceptional and total reaction, slow down the limbs’ movement, worsen the striking accuracy and, possibly, decrease the strike power. The preliminary results are inconclusive regarding the competitive advantages/disadvantages induced by weight cutting. Further biomechanical studies are needed to deal with the controversial subject more objectively and scientifically.

Changes in body mass and hydration status in judo athletes before and after a top-level competition: a descriptive case study

OBJECTIVES

The International Judo Federation (IJF) implemented new regulations in an attempt to regulate rapid weight loss in 2013. The body weight of the athletes cannot be more than 5% higher than the upper limits of their weight categories at the weight check for randomly selected athletes from each weight category before the competition. However, therea lack of studies demonstrating rapid weight loss and hydration status of elite judo athletes in a real match atmosphere under the current refereeing rules. Thus, this study aimed to examine the body mass and hydration changes of elite judo athletes a week before the competition, official weigh-in, and 24 hours after competition.

METHODS

Eight high-level male judo athletes voluntarily participated in this study. Body mass and urinary measures of hydration status were collected a week before, at the official weigh-in and 24-hour post-weigh-in.

RESULTS

The one-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant main effect of time on body mass (p < 0.001). Body mass decreased by 5.4 ± 0.7 kg or 6.8% from a week before the competition to official weigh-in (p < 0.001) and increased by 3.0 ± 1.1 kg or 4.2% from official weigh-in to 24-h post-competition (p < 0.001). A significant effect of time was also found in both urine-specific gravity (USG) (p < 0.001) and urine color (UC) among the measurements (p = 0.001). Athletes' USG values were at the highest level (USG = 1.030 ± 0.001) at the official weigh-in, while they decreased significantly at 24-hour post-competition (USG = 1.017 ± 0.007).

CONCLUSION

The results showed that elite judo athletes resort to rapid weight loss and present dehydration despite established regulations by the IJF.

A 5-Year Analysis of Weight Cycling Practices in a Male World Champion Professional Boxer: Potential Implications for Obesity and Cardiometabolic Disease

Weight cycling is thought to increase the risk of obesity and cardiometabolic disease in nonathletic and athletic populations. However, the magnitude and frequency of weight cycling is not well characterized in elite athletes. To this end, we quantified the weight cycling practices of a male World Champion professional boxer competing at super middleweight (76.2 kg). Over a 5-year period comprising 11 contests, we assessed changes in body mass (n = 8 contests) and body composition (n = 6 contests) during the training camp preceding each contest. Time taken to make weight was 11 ± 4 weeks (range: 4-16). Absolute and relative weight loss for each contest was 12.4 ± 2.1 kg (range: 9.8-17.0) and 13.9% ± 2.0% (range: 11.3-18.2), respectively. Notably, the athlete commenced each training camp with progressive increases in fat mass (i.e., 12.5 and 16.1 kg for Contests 1 and 11) and reductions in fat-free mass (i.e., 69.8 and 67.5 kg for Contests 1 and 11, respectively). Data suggest that weight cycling may lead to "fat overshooting" and further weight gain in later life. Larger scale studies are now required to characterize the weight cycling practices of elite athletes and robustly assess future cardiometabolic disease risk. From an ethical perspective, practitioners should be aware of the potential health consequences associated with weight cycling.

ACSM Expert Consensus Statement on Weight Loss in Weight-Category Sports

ABSTRACT

Weight-category sports are defined by the requirement of a weigh-in before competition to provide performance equity and reduced injury risks by eliminating size discrepancies. Athletes in these sports try to gain a theoretical advantage by competing in weight divisions that are lower than their day-to-day body mass (BM), using a combination of chronic strategies (body-fat losses) and acute manipulations over a period of hours to days before weigh-in ("making weight"). Strategies to support safer practices include minimal competition weight classification based on preseason body composition, reductions in the period between weigh-in and competition, and prohibition of unhealthy weight loss techniques. At an individual level, expert guidance by a sports nutrition professional can help an athlete to establish a pragmatic and long-term approach to BM management, recognizing the nuances of their sport, to achieve favorable outcomes for both health and performance.

Rapid Weight Gain Following Weight Cutting in Male and Female Professional Mixed Martial Artists

Rapid weight loss or "weight cutting" is a common but potentially harmful practice used in mixed martial arts competition. Following the official weigh-in, competitors refeed and rehydrate themselves in a process known as rapid weight gain (RWG) to realize a potential competitive advantage. While data from surveys and small series have indicated the majority of mixed martial arts athletes engage in rapid weight loss, there is a lack of officially collected data from sanctioning organizations describing its prevalence. The present investigation represents a summary of the data collected between December 2015 and January 2018 by the California State Athletic Commission. In total, 512 professional mixed martial artists (455 males and 57 females) were included. Of these, 503 (98%) athletes gained body mass between weigh-in and their bouts. Total RWG between weigh-in and competition was 5.5 ± 2.5 kg, corresponding to an 8.1% ± 3.6% body mass increase. Total RWG was 5.6 ± 2.5 kg (8.1% ± 3.6%) for males and 4.5 ± 2.3 kg (8.0% ± 3.8%) for females. More than one quarter of men and one third of women gained >10% body mass between weigh-in and competition. Athletes from leading international promotions gained more absolute, but not relative, body mass than those from regional promotions. Our findings indicate RWG is nearly ubiquitous in professional , with a similar prevalence in male and female athletes. Trends based on promotion suggest a larger magnitude of RWG in presumably more experienced and/or successful mixed martial artists from leading international promotions.

Pre-competition body mass loss characteristics of Brazilian jiu-jitsu competitors in the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) is a grappling-based combat sport in which competitors engage in pre-competition acute 'weight' loss (AWL) and rapid 'weight' loss (RWL) to achieve the body mass (BM) required for their desired division. AWL/RWL practices of UK BJJ competitors have not previously been reported.

AIM

Our aim in this study was to determine the prevalence, magnitude and stakeholder influences of AWL and RWL amongst BJJ participants in the United Kingdom (UK). A secondary aim was to explore whether there is any influence of time spent in the sport or competition frequency on AWL/RWL practices.

METHODS

In this study we used the rapid weight loss questionnaire (RWLQ) adapted for BJJ to determine the prevalence and magnitude of AWL/RWL in UK BJJ, the prevalence of methods used and the key stakeholder influences on these practices. As a secondary investigation we aimed to determine whether there was any effect of age starting BJJ on AWL/RWL.

RESULTS

Of 115 completed responses, 59% stated they performed AWL/RWL before competition. Mean BM loss for this competition was 1.9 ± 3.8 kg (2.3 ± 4.6%), with 34% of participants starting BM loss 3-7 days prior and 16% starting 0-2 days prior. Methods used tend to be achieving calorie deficit via exercise and diet rather than hypohydration, with little advice from formally qualified personnel. Participants who perform AWL/RWL started training (BF₁₀ = 199, d = .72) and competing (BF₁₀ = 107, d = .68) in BJJ younger than those who do not perform AWL/RWL.

CONCLUSIONS

AWL/RWL is prevalent in UK BJJ, but not at the magnitude of other combat sports or countries. Though negative effects of extreme hypohydration are unlikely, there may be a higher chance of eating disorders in BJJ, particularly due to the young age of AWL/RWL commencement.

Effect of the COVID-19 quarantine on body mass among combat sports athletes

Introduction

Introduction: to combat the COVID-19 pandemic governments have adopted measures such as quarantine and social distancing. Objective: the main objective of the present study was to analyze the impact of COVID-19 quarantine on body mass in combat sports athletes. Methods: we conducted a cross-sectional, prospective, multi-center study that evaluated 234 men (mean age and standard deviation, 29 ± 10 years) residing in Argentina (n = 38); Bolivia (n = 1); Brazil (n = 105); Chile (n = 30); El Salvador (n = 1); Spain (n = 22); Mexico (n = 22) and Peru (n = 15). Of these, 12 practiced Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ), 54 boxing, 67 judo, 13 karate, 52 kick boxing & muay thai (KB & MT), 9 mixed martial arts (MMA), and 27 taekwondo (TKD). An online survey was created using Google Forms. It was implemented between April 4th and April 17th, 2020. Athletes were consulted about their body mass before starting the quarantine and after 20 ± 5 days of quarantine. Results: athletes in all combat sports were heavier during quarantine as compared to pre-quarantine (p < 0.001, d = 0.12). Conclusions: combat sports athletes experienced an increase in body mass during the COVID-19 quarantine.

Self-confidence and Disordered Eating amongst Martial Artists: A Cross-sectional Study

Background: Extreme dieting is a well-known phenomenon in combat sports, and still, little research has explored the link between extreme dieting and confidence levels among martial artists. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, extreme dieting and sport-specific self-confidence among 111 Swedish athletes practicing mixed martial arts (MMA) or Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) were examined. Athletes completed an online survey containing the Eating Disorder Examination questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the Trait Sport-Confidence inventory (TSCI). Results: The results showed that MMA athletes dieted in more extreme ways than BJJ athletes, primarily via restricted eating. They also had higher sport-specific self-confidence, which was positively correlated with weight loss. BJJ athletes used less restrictive eating than MMA athletes, but those who did diet in extreme ways experienced lower self-confidence compared to MMA athletes. Conclusions: The results are consistent with previous studies showing rapid weight loss in MMA athletes and suggest that some martial artists are at a particular risk of extreme dieting and possible sequelae. There is a link between self-confidence and weight loss, but it seems to allude to a comprehensive explanation and is in need of further research.

Factors Influencing Weight Loss Practices in Italian Boxers: A Cluster Analysis

It is common practice in combat sports that athletes rapidly lose body weight before a match, by applying different practices-some safer and others possibly dangerous. The factors behind the choice of practices utilised have not been fully studied. This study aimed to investigate the weight loss strategies used by Italian boxers and to look at the difference between higher and lower risk practice adaptors. A modified version of a validated questionnaire has been sent to 164 amateur (88%) and professional (12%) boxers by email. A heatmap with hierarchical clustering was used to explore the presence of subgroups. Weight loss strategies were used by 88% of the athletes. Two clusters were found, defined by the severity of weight loss behaviours. Professional fighters, high-level athletes and females were more represented in Cluster 2, the one with more severe weight-loss practices. These athletes were characterised by a higher weight loss magnitude and frequency throughout the season and reported being more influenced by physicians and nutritionists, compared with the boxers in Cluster 1. Not all the weight loss practices are used with the same frequency by all boxers. The level of the athlete and the boxing style have an influence on the weight-cutting practices.

Worth the Weight? Post Weigh-In Rapid Weight Gain is Not Related to Winning or Losing in Professional Mixed Martial Arts

Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is a common practice among mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh in twice: 24 hr prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout after they have typically engaged in RWG. In analyzing data from five MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, the authors used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n = 62) and losers (n = 62) in terms of in-competition BM (in kilograms) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (in kilograms). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in in-competition BM (Bayes factor [BF10] = 0.667, d = 0.23) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.821, d = 0.23) determine winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts ending via strikes, submission, or decision for either in-competition BM (BF10 = 0.686, ω2 < 0.01) or the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (BF10 = 0.732, ω2 = 0.054). In conclusion, the authors report for the first time that the magnitude of RWG does not predict winning or losing in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. In addition, they also report that MMA athletes typically compete at a BM that is at least 1-2 divisions higher than the division in which they officially weighed-in. These analyses may provide impetus for governing bodies and coaches to enact changes at both professional and amateur levels to reduce negative health consequences associated with extreme RWL and RWG.

The Current State of Weight-Cutting in Combat Sports-Weight-Cutting in Combat Sports

In combat sports, athletes are divided into categories based on gender and body mass. Athletes attempt to compete against a lighter opponent by losing body mass prior to being weighed (i.e., 'weight-cutting'). The purpose of this narrative review was to explore the current body of literature on weight-cutting and outline gaps for further research. Methods of weight-loss include energy intake restriction, total body fluid reduction and pseudo extreme/abusive medical practice (e.g., diuretics). The influence of weight-cutting on performance is unclear, with studies suggesting a negative or no effect. However, larger weight-cuts (~5% of body mass in <24 h) do impair repeat-effort performance. It is unclear if the benefit from competing against a smaller opponent outweighs the observed reduction in physical capacity. Many mechanisms have been proposed for the observed reductions in performance, ranging from reduced glycogen availability to increased perceptions of fatigue. Athletes undertaking weight-cutting may be able to utilise strategies around glycogen, total body water and electrolyte replenishment to prepare for competition. Despite substantial discussion on managing weight-cutting in combat sports, no clear solution has been offered. Given the prevalence of weight-cutting, it is important to develop a deeper understanding of such practices so appropriate advice can be given.

Musculoskeletal and head injuries in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC)

OBJECTIVES

Mixed martial arts (MMA) has witnessed a surge in popularity worldwide. This study explores the musculoskeletal and head injuries sustained in the professional fights of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), and establishes associations between injury profiles and impactful contributory factors.

METHODS

The Nevada State Athletic Commission database was screened for ringside physician reports of UFC fights between January 2016 and July 2018. Information on the fighter's gender, weight, injury, way of finish, and match result were collected. Injury rates were calculated and statistical analyses were conducted to determine significant associations among variables. P-values <0.05 were considered significant (95% CI).

RESULTS

A total of 291 injuries were recorded in 285 fights from nine weight divisions. The overall injury rate was 51 per 100 athletic exposures (AE). Males predominantly partook in 249 matches (87%) and had higher injury rates (54 injuries per 100 AE) than females (30 injuries per 100 AE). Decision was the most common way a match ended. Knockouts (KOs) were significantly higher in males (36%) than in females (14%, P = 0.0007). Submissions were significantly higher in females (36%) than in males (16%, P = 0.001). Head injuries (67%) were the most common injuries reported with a rate of 34 per 100 AE. Upper limb injuries were significantly higher in females (40%) than in males (14%, P = 0.0003). Lower limb injuries were significantly higher in males (19%) than in females (5%, P = 0.01). Head injuries were significantly associated with KOs (P < 0.0001). Upper limb injuries (P = 0.032) and lower limb injuries (P = 0.034) were significantly associated with matches that ended with Decision. Trend-line analyses showed that as weight division increases, overall injury rates, head injuries, lower limb injuries, and KOs' frequency increase, whereas upper limb injuries, Submission frequency, and Decision frequency decrease.

CONCLUSION

MMA has a high injury rate. Gender, way of finish, and weight play an important role in predicting fight outcomes and injury profiles. Injury prevention policies must be entertained to limit injury risk in MMA.

Weight Regain, but not Weight Loss, Is Related to Competitive Success in Real-Life Mixed Martial Arts Competition

We aimed to describe the nutritional and behavioral strategies for rapid weight loss (RWL), investigate the effects of RWL and weight regain in winners and losers, and verify mood state and technical-tactical/time-motion parameters in mixed martial arts. The sample consisted of mixed martial arts athletes after a single real match and was separated into two groups: winners (n = 8; age: 25.4 ± 6.1 years, height: 173.9 ± 0.2 cm, habitual body mass: 89.9 ± 17.3 kg) and losers (n = 7; age: 24.4 ± 6.8 years, height: 178.4 ± 0.9 cm, habitual body mass: 90.8 ± 19.5 kg). Both groups exhibited RWL and weight regain, verified their macronutrient intake, underwent weight and height assessments, and completed two questionnaires (Profile of Mood States and RWL) at (a) 24 hr before weigh-in, (b) weigh-in, (c) postbout, and (d) during a validated time-motion and technical-tactical analysis during the bout. Variance analysis, repeated measures, and a logistic regression analysis were used. The main results showed significant differences between the time points in terms of total caloric intake as well as carbohydrate, protein, and lipid ingestion. Statistical differences in combat analysis were observed between the winners and losers in terms of high-intensity relative time (58 [10-98] s and 32 [1-60] s, respectively), lower limb sequences (3.5 [1.0-7.5] sequences and 1.0 [0.0-1.0] sequences, respectively), and ground and pound actions (2.5 [0.0-4.5] actions and 0.0 [0.0-0.5] actions, respectively), and logistic regression confirmed the importance of high-intensity relative time and lower limb sequences on mixed martial arts performance. RWL and weight regain strategies were related to technical-tactical and time-motion patterns as well as match outcomes. Weight management should be carefully supervised by specialized professionals to reduce health risks and raise competitive performance.

Weight Loss Strategies in Combat Sports and Concerning Habits in Mixed Martial Arts

Context: Combat sports are typically divided into weight classes, and body-mass manipulation to reach a weight class is commonplace. Previous research suggests that weight loss practices in mixed martial arts (MMA) may be more extreme than in other combat sports. Purpose: To investigate the magnitude of weight loss and the prevalence of weight loss strategies in different combat sports. Methods: Competitors (N = 637) from Brazilian jiu-jitsu, boxing, judo, MMA, Muay Thai/kickboxing, taekwondo, and wrestling completed an online questionnaire seeking information regarding their weight loss practices. Results: Body-mass manipulation was commonly undertaken by all combat-sport athletes, with a particularly high incidence of gradual dieting, increased exercise, and fluid restriction. Skipping meals was higher in taekwondo and wrestling (84%) compared with the other combat sports (∼58%), whereas training in heated rooms and forced oral fluid loss (spitting) was higher in wrestling (83% and 47%, respectively) compared with other combat sports (∼45% and ∼19%, respectively). MMA athletes reported the highest usage of sauna (76%) and water loading (67%) while also reporting the second-highest use of training in rubber/plastic suits (63%). Conclusions: Body-mass manipulation was present in all combat sports, with the prevalence and magnitude of acute weight loss greater in MMA. The incidence of and practices reported will help support staff be fully aware of the variety of methods these athletes and coaches may use to achieve weight loss. Additionally, the results could aid regulatory bodies in the further development of policies on weight cutting.

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport in Male Athletes: A Commentary on Its Presentation Among Selected Groups of Male Athletes

Low energy availability (LEA) is a key element of the Female Athlete Triad. Causes of LEA include failure to match high exercise energy expenditure (unintentional) or pathological behaviors of disordered eating (compulsive) and overzealous weight control programs (misguided but intentional). Recognition of such scenarios in male athletes contributed to the pronouncement of the more inclusive Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) syndrome. This commentary describes the insights and experience of the current group of authors around the apparently heightened risk of LEA in some populations of male athletes: road cyclists, rowers (lightweight and open weight), athletes in combat sports, distance runners, and jockeys. The frequency, duration, and magnitude of the LEA state appear to vary between populations. Common risk factors include cyclical management of challenging body mass and composition targets (including "making weight") and the high energy cost of some training programs or events that is not easily matched by energy intake. However, additional factors such as food insecurity and lack of finances may also contribute to impaired nutrition in some populations. Collectively, these insights substantiate the concept of RED-S in male athletes and suggest that a specific understanding of a sport, subpopulation, or culture may identify a complex series of factors that can contribute to LEA and the type and severity of its outcomes. This commentary provides a perspective on the range of risk factors that should be addressed in future surveys of RED-S in athletic populations and targeted for specific investigation and modification.