Exercise as an adjunctive treatment for cannabis use disorder

Effect of physical exercise on the emotional and cognitive levels of patients with substance use disorder: a meta-analysis

Introduction

This study investigated the impact of different modes of physical exercise on the emotional and cognitive levels of patients with Substance Use Disorder (SUD). By exploring the most effective intervention types, cycle, frequency, and duration, we aimed to provide evidence-based recommendations for the adjunctive treatment of SUD.

Methods

We conducted a systematic search in five databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, The Cochrane Library, ScienceDirect, and EBSCO, from database inception up to May 2023, and identified 4,255 randomized controlled trials addressing the influence of physical exercise on the emotional and cognitive levels of SUD patients. Data extraction and analysis were performed using Review Manager 5.4 software, focusing on 11 studies that met the inclusion criteria and included 895 participants. Subsequently, a meta-analysis was conducted using Stata 16.0 software, presenting the results in the form of standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

Our findings indicate that physical exercise significantly alleviates anxiety and depression in SUD patients while improving their cognitive function. Specifically, physical exercise was found to reduce anxiety (SMD = -0.726 [-1.349, -0.103], p < 0.05) and depression (SMD = -0.666 [-1.077, -0.255], p < 0.05) and enhance cognitive levels (SMD = -0.523 [-0.887, -0.159], p < 0.05) among patients. Subgroup analysis further revealed that SUD patients benefitted most from physical exercise when engaging in aerobic exercises lasting over 12 weeks, with a frequency exceeding 40 sessions and each session lasting more than 60 min.

Discussion

In conclusion, our study affirms that physical exercise mitigates anxiety and depression while enhancing cognitive function in SUD patients, making it an effective measure for adjunctive clinical treatment.

Effects of a Two-Month Exercise Training Program on Concurrent Non-Opiate Substance Use in Opioid-Dependent Patients during Substitution Treatment

BACKGROUND

This randomized controlled trial aimed to evaluate the effects of a two-month exercise intervention on the concurrent non-opiate substance use (alcohol, cocaine, cannabis, and benzodiazepines) in opioid users during their medication treatment.

METHODS

Ninety opioid users (41 females) in methadone and buprenorphine medication treatment were randomly divided into four groups: (a) buprenorphine experimental (BEX; n = 26, aged 41.9 ± 6.1 yrs); (b) buprenorphine control (BCON; n = 25, aged 41.9 ± 5.6 yrs); (c) methadone experimental (MEX; n = 20, aged 46.7 ± 6.6 yrs); and (d) methadone control (MCON; n = 19, aged 46.1 ± 7.5 yrs). The experimental groups (BEX and MEX) followed an aerobic exercise training program on a treadmill for 20 min at 70% HRmax, 3 days/week for 8 weeks. Socio-demographic, anthropometric, and clinical characteristics, as well as non-opioid drug use in days and quantity per week, were assessed before and after the intervention period.

RESULTS

Following the exercise training, the weekly non-opioid substance consumption (days) decreased (p < 0.05) in both exercise groups and was lower in BEX compared to MEX, while no differences were observed (p > 0.05) between the control groups (BCON vs. MCON) or compared to their baseline levels. Similarly, the daily amount of non-opiate substance intake was reduced (p < 0.05) post-training in BEX and MEX, whereas it did not differ (p > 0.05) in BCON and MCON compared to the baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

The two-month exercise intervention reduced the non-opioid drug use in both the methadone and buprenorphine substitution groups compared to the controls, suggesting that aerobic exercise training may be an effective strategy for treating patients with OUDs.

Sweating for Sobriety: Exploring the Relationship Between Exercise Engagement and Substance Use Disorders

Despite various interventions available for substance use disorders, relapse rates remain substantial and, therefore, alternative strategies for attenuating dependence are needed. This study examined the associations between exercise frequency, illicit substance use, and dependence severity among a large sample of people who use drugs. The study utilized data from the Global Drug Survey 2018 (N = 57,110) to investigate the relationship between exercise frequency, illicit substance use, and substance dependence severity. Binomial regressions were employed to examine the relationship between exercise and SDS scores for 9 drugs. Greater exercise frequency correlated with reduced severity of substance dependence for specific drugs: cannabis (χ2 = 14.75, p < .001), MDMA (χ2 = 4.73, p = .029), cocaine (χ2 = 8.37, p = .015), amphetamine powder (χ2 = 6.39, p = .041), and methamphetamine (χ2 = 15.17, p < .001). These findings suggest a potential link between exercise and reduced substance use dependency. Further research is needed to understand the complex dynamics between exercise and substance use, considering potential bidirectional relationships and concurrent factors.

The Role of Physical Exercise in Opioid Substitution Therapy: Mechanisms of Sequential Effects

It is generally accepted that chronic opioid use is associated with structural and functional changes in the human brain that lead to an enhancement of impulsive behavior for immediate satisfaction. Interestingly, in recent years, physical exercise interventions have been used as an adjunctive treatment for patients with opioid use disorders (OUDs). Indeed, exercise has positive effects on both the biological and psychosocial basis of addiction, modifying neural circuits such as the reward, inhibition, and stress systems, and thus causing behavioral changes. This review focuses on the possible mechanisms that contribute to the beneficial effects of exercise on the treatment of OUDs, with emphasis placed on the description of a sequential consolidation of these mechanisms. Exercise is thought to act initially as a factor of internal activation and self-regulation and eventually as a factor of commitment. This approach suggests a sequential (temporal) consolidation of the functions of exercise in favor of gradual disengagement from addiction. Particularly, the sequence in which the exercise-induced mechanisms are consolidated follows the pattern of internal activation-self-regulation-commitment, eventually resulting in stimulation of the endocannabinoid and endogenous opioid systems. Additionally, this is accompanied by modification of molecular and behavioral aspects of opioid addiction. Overall, the neurobiological actions of exercise in combination with certain psychological mechanisms appear to promote its beneficial effects. Given the positive effects of exercise on both physical and mental health, exercise prescription is recommended as a complement to conventional therapy for patients on opioid maintenance treatment.

Social media interventions addressing physical activity among emerging adults who use cannabis: A pilot trial of feasibility and acceptability

PURPOSE

Cannabis use is common among emerging adults (ages 18-25), yet few prevention interventions have targeted this unique developmental period. Physical activity (PA) is an under-utilized intervention target for cannabis use, despite research showing its potential utility. Based on prior promising social media-delivered interventions targeting cannabis and PA separately, we developed and piloted, in a randomized controlled feasibility trial (NCT04901910), interventions for emerging adults who use cannabis that focused on PA.

PROCEDURES

Using social media, we recruited 60 emerging adults (Mean age=21.7 years; 63.3% female sex) who used cannabis (>=3 times/week for the past month) and could engage in PA. We randomized participants into one of 3 conditions (PA-Only; PA+Cannabis, Attention-Control) that each lasted 8 weeks and were delivered in secret Facebook groups by health coaches. We collected follow-up data at 3- and 6-months post-group start. Outcomes are presented descriptively given the pilot nature and limited sample size.

RESULTS

The interventions were rated favorably, with ratings of the content in each condition averaging around 3 on a 5-point scale. Both intervention groups demonstrated larger reductions in cannabis consequences and cannabis-impaired driving over time than the control condition. Findings were mixed regarding patterns of change in cannabis use in the intervention conditions. Proportions of group members reporting increased PA ranged from 38.9% to 80.0% across time.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions targeting PA and delivered via social media to emerging adults who regularly use cannabis offer a novel intervention target. These interventions warrant future investigation in larger trials over a longer follow-up period.

Exercise in the Treatment of Addiction: A Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Exercise has been recognized as a promising and emerging treatment for individuals recovering from addiction. The purpose of this article was to systematically review scientific studies using exercise as a means to improve, sustain, or treat addictions, and to provide suggestions for the future use of exercise as a treatment method for addiction.

METHODS

Using PRISMA guidelines, a database search was conducted for articles that tested the impact of exercise interventions on addiction-related outcomes. To be included, peer-reviewed experimental design studies had to use human subjects to investigate the relationship between exercise and the treatment of or recovery from addiction. Garrard's Matrix Method was used to extract data from reviewed articles (n = 53).

RESULTS

Nearly three quarters of the studies reviewed documented a significant change in addiction-related outcomes (e.g., more days abstinent, reduced cravings) in response to exercise exposure, particularly while someone was receiving treatment at an in or outpatient clinic. Many studies investigated the effect of acute bouts of exercise on nicotine dependence, and many studies had small sample sizes, leaving room for future research on how exercise might benefit people recovering from substance and process addictions.

CONCLUSION

Results affirm that exercise can be a helpful aspect of addiction treatment. Future researchers should investigate different exercise settings (e.g., group-based exercise vs individual) and explore exercise maintenance and the long-term outcomes following discharge from treatment facilities.

State of Knowledge on Molecular Adaptations to Exercise in Humans: Historical Perspectives and Future Directions

For centuries, regular exercise has been acknowledged as a potent stimulus to promote, maintain, and restore healthy functioning of nearly every physiological system of the human body. With advancing understanding of the complexity of human physiology, continually evolving methodological possibilities, and an increasingly dire public health situation, the study of exercise as a preventative or therapeutic treatment has never been more interdisciplinary, or more impactful. During the early stages of the NIH Common Fund Molecular Transducers of Physical Activity Consortium (MoTrPAC) Initiative, the field is well-positioned to build substantially upon the existing understanding of the mechanisms underlying benefits associated with exercise. Thus, we present a comprehensive body of the knowledge detailing the current literature basis surrounding the molecular adaptations to exercise in humans to provide a view of the state of the field at this critical juncture, as well as a resource for scientists bringing external expertise to the field of exercise physiology. In reviewing current literature related to molecular and cellular processes underlying exercise-induced benefits and adaptations, we also draw attention to existing knowledge gaps warranting continued research effort. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 12:3193-3279, 2022.

Exercise Training Improves Memory Performance in Older Adults: A Narrative Review of Evidence and Possible Mechanisms

As human life expectancy increases, cognitive decline and memory impairment threaten independence and quality of life. Therefore, finding prevention and treatment strategies for memory impairment is an important health concern. Moreover, a better understanding of the mechanisms involved underlying memory preservation will enable the development of appropriate pharmaceuticals drugs for those who are activity limited. Exercise training as a non-pharmacological tool, has been known to increase the mean lifespan by maintaining general body health and improving the cardiovascular and nervous systems function. Among different exercise training protocols, aerobic exercise has been reported to prevent the progression of memory decline, provided adequate exertion level, duration, and frequency. Mechanisms underlying exercise training effects on memory performance have not been understood yet. Convergent evidence suggest several direct and indirect mechanisms at molecular and supramolecular levels. The supramolecular level includes improvement in blood circulation, synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis which are under controls of complex molecular signaling of neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, exerkines, and epigenetics factors. Among these various factors, irisin/BDNF signaling seems to be one of the important mediators of crosstalk between contracted skeletal muscles and the brain during exercise training. This review provides an affordable and effective method to improve cognitive function in old ages, particularly those who are most vulnerable to neurodegenerative disorders.

A Mixed-Method Investigation into Therapeutic Yoga as an Adjunctive Treatment for People Recovering from Substance Use Disorders

Mind Body Connect (MBC) is a charity which uses therapeutic yoga as a vehicle of change for marginalized populations. Alongside MBC, Sheffield Hallam University’s SHU Strength researchers carried out this study aiming to: (1) Gauge the impact of therapeutic yoga classes upon the mood state of people with a Substance Use Disorder (SUD) and (2) Explore the perceived benefits of therapeutic yoga class participation. An adapted shortened Profile of Mood States (POMS) was completed before and after each  yoga class. A comparison of means with paired sample T-Test and Cohen’s D was then carried out. Participants who attended 6+ classes were interviewed. Findings were then converged. Before and after measurements of anger, sadness, tiredness, worry, confusion, energy and relaxation were taken, Classes were held at SHU for service users from a Phoenix Future’s (PF) rehabilitation centre. A single yoga class significantly relaxed participants and reduced negative mood states. Interview data covered a range of perceived benefits including the use of yogic down-regulation techniques as daily coping strategies. The MBC yoga programme appears beneficial as an adjunctive therapy for PF residents. Future SHU Strength research shall focus on the mid-long-term exercise habits of the recovery community and the impact of the MBC yoga programme upon the early recovery period of detoxification.

Assessing Aerobic Fitness Level in Relation to Affective and Behavioral Functioning in Emerging Adult Cannabis Users

BACKGROUND

Cannabis use is common amongst emerging adults and increasingly linked to negative mood and neurocognitive performance. Aerobic fitness, however, may be positively linked. Therefore we assess the potential moderating influence of aerobic fitness on affective and behavioral functioning associated with cannabis.

METHODS

After 3-weeks of abstinence, 83 16-26 year-olds (38 cannabis, 45 controls) completed self-report inventories (BDI-II, STAI-state, FrSBe, BIS/BAS), an objective emotion functioning measure (PennCNP), and VO2 max testing. Multiple regressions assessed symptoms from past year cannabis use, VO2 max, and cannabis*VO2, controlling for alcohol, cotinine, gender, and BMI.

RESULTS

Past year cannabis use was associated with increased depressive symptoms (p=.04), BIS/BAS component (p=.002), and emotion recognition (p=.045).

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest a robust association between past year cannabis use and depressive symptoms and behavioral and affective functioning. Aerobic fitness, however, did not moderate these relationships. Efforts should be made to inform the public of concerns regarding the potential negative impact of cannabis on mood.

24-h Movement Guidelines and Substance Use among Adolescents: A School-Based Cross-Sectional Study

Children and youth are recommended to achieve at least 60 min/day of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, no more than 2 h/day of recreational screen time, and a sleep duration of 9–11 h/night for 11–13-year-olds or 8–10 h/night for 14–17-year-olds. Meeting the physical activity, screen time, and sleep duration recommendations have previously been associated with substance use among adolescents. However, previous research has mainly examined these factors individually rather than looking at how these indicators could concurrently relate to substance use in this age group. Therefore, this study examined the associations between meeting the 24-h movement guidelines for screen time, sleep duration, and physical activity (independent variables) with substance use outcomes including alcohol consumption, cannabis use, and cigarette smoking (dependent variables) among adolescents. Self-reported data from a cross-sectional and representative sample of 10,236 students (mean age = 15.1 years) in Ontario, Canada were analyzed. Logistic regression models stratified by gender were adjusted for potential confounders. Combinations of 24-h movement guidelines was differentially associated with substance use in boys and girls. Overall, findings showed that meeting 24-h movement guidelines is associated with lower odds of alcohol consumption, cannabis use, and cigarette smoking differentially with type of recommendation met and gender. Given that the associations between 24-h movement guidelines and substance use differ between boys and girls, future efforts should take this into consideration.

The effect of daily aerobic cycling exercise on sleep quality during inpatient cannabis withdrawal: A randomised controlled trial

Sleep disturbance is a common symptom encountered by cannabis-dependent individuals abstaining from cannabis use. In the present study, we investigated the effect of daily aerobic cycling exercise versus control stretching on sleep quality during inpatient cannabis withdrawal in treatment-seeking dependent cannabis users. The protocol incorporated three consecutive phases: a 4-Day (4-Night) (at-home) 'Baseline' phase, a 6-Day (5-Night) 'Treatment' phase (within a 7-Day inpatient hospital stay) and a 3-Day (4-Night) (at-home) 'Post-Treatment' phase. Participants performed 35 min of monitored activity per day during the Treatment phase. The intervention group (n = 19) cycled at ~60% aerobic capacity (VO_2max ), while the control group (n = 12) performed a stretching routine. Objective sleep quality was measured nightly throughout the study using wrist actigraphy ratings of subjective sleep quality were also recorded during the Treatment phase. There were no group differences in sleep measures during the Baseline phase (all p > .05). Objective sleep onset latency increased from the Baseline to the Treatment phase in the control (stretching) group (p = .042). In contrast, the Cycling group exhibited improvements in sleep duration (p = .008) and sleep efficiency (p = .023) during the Treatment phase compared to the Baseline phase. Cycling also increased sleep duration (p = .005), decreased average wake bout (p = .040) and tended to increase sleep efficiency (p = .051) compared to stretching during the Treatment phase. Subjective sleep quality ratings did not differ between groups (p > .10). These preliminary findings suggest that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise may attenuate the sleep disturbances associated with cannabis withdrawal.

Can Physical Activity Support the Endocannabinoid System in the Preventive and Therapeutic Approach to Neurological Disorders?

The worldwide prevalence of neurological and neurodegenerative disorders, such as depression or Alzheimer's disease, has spread extensively throughout the last decades, becoming an enormous health issue. Numerous data indicate a distinct correlation between the altered endocannabinoid signaling and different aspects of brain physiology, such as memory or neurogenesis. Moreover, the endocannabinoid system is widely regarded as a crucial factor in the development of neuropathologies. Thus, targeting those disorders via synthetic cannabinoids, as well as phytocannabinoids, becomes a widespread research issue. Over the last decade, the endocannabinoid system has been extensively studied for its correlation with physical activity. Recent data showed that physical activity correlates with elevated endocannabinoid serum concentrations and increased cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) expression in the brain, which results in positive neurological effects including antidepressant effect, ameliorated memory, neuroplasticity development, and reduced neuroinflammation. However, none of the prior reviews presented a comprehensive correlation between physical activity, the endocannabinoid system, and neuropathologies. Thus, our review provides a current state of knowledge of the endocannabinoid system, its action in physical activity, as well as neuropathologies and a possible correlation between all those fields. We believe that this might contribute to finding a new preventive and therapeutic approach to both neurological and neurodegenerative disorders.

Assessing the Role of Cannabis Use on Cortical Surface Structure in Adolescents and Young Adults: Exploring Gender and Aerobic Fitness as Potential Moderators

Cannabis use in adolescents and young adults is linked with aberrant brain structure, although findings to date are inconsistent. We examined whether aerobic fitness moderated the effects of cannabis on cortical surface structure and whether gender may play a moderating role. Seventy-four adolescents and young adults completed three-weeks of monitored abstinence, aerobic fitness testing, and structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI). Whole-sample linear regressions examined the effects of gender, VO2 max, cannabis use, and their interactions on the surface area (SA) and local gyrification index (LGI). Cannabis use was associated with greater cuneus SA. Gender-by-cannabis predicted precuneus and frontal SA, and precentral, supramarginal, and frontal LGI; female cannabis users demonstrated greater LGI, whereas male cannabis users demonstrated decreased LGI compared to non-users. Aerobic fitness was positively associated with various SA and LGI regions. Cannabis-by-aerobic fitness predicted cuneus SA and occipital LGI. These findings demonstrate that aerobic fitness moderates the impact of cannabis on cortical surface structure, and gender differences are evident. These moderating factors may help explain inconsistencies in the literature and warrant further investigation. Present findings and aerobic fitness literature jointly suggest aerobic intervention may be a low-cost avenue for improving cortical surface structure, although the impact may be gender-specific.

Reinforcing exercise to improve drug abuse treatment outcomes: A randomized controlled study in a substance use disorder outpatient treatment setting

Exercise holds potential to reduce substance use, but engaging patients in exercise regimens is challenging. Contingency management (CM) interventions can directly address adherence by targeting initiation and maintenance of exercise behavior. This study evaluated the efficacy of a CM-reinforced exercise intervention as an adjunct to standard outpatient substance use disorder treatment. Participants were 120 patients with substance use disorders who were randomly assigned to standard care with CM for completing exercise goals or CM for completing general nonexercise goals weekly for a 4-month treatment period. Urine samples were tested for evidence of illicit substance use up to twice a week during treatment and at follow-ups through month 12. Results found that the CM-exercise condition demonstrated during-treatment improvements on several physical activity and relevant psychosocial functioning indices (e.g., self-efficacy for exercise). The CM-exercise condition had no advantage relative to the CM-general condition in decreasing substance use. Overall, this study adds to a small body of well-powered trials assessing effects of exercise interventions as adjunct treatment for substance use disorders and finds no benefit over an alternate CM approach in terms of drug abstinence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Acute and long-term cannabis use among stimulant users: Results from CTN-0037 Stimulant Reduction Intervention using Dosed Exercise (STRIDE) Randomized Control Trial

AIMS

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of vigorous intensity, high dose exercise (DEI) on cannabis use among stimulant users compared to a health education intervention (HEI) using data from the Stimulant Reduction Intervention using Dosed Exercise, National Institute of Drug Abuse National Drug Treatment Clinical Trials Network Protocol Number 0037 (STRIDE).

METHODS

Adults (N = 302) enrolled in the STRIDE randomized clinical trial were randomized to either the DEI or the HEI. Interventions included supervised sessions three times a week during the Acute phase (12 weeks) and once a week during the Follow-up phase (6 months). Cannabis use was measured at each assessment via Timeline Follow Back and urine drug screens. Cannabis use was compared between the groups during the Acute and Follow-up phases using both the intent-to-treat sample and a complier average causal effects (CACE) analysis.

FINDINGS

Approximately 43% of the sample reported cannabis use at baseline. The difference in cannabis use between the DEI and HEI groups during the Acute phase was not significant. During the Follow-up phase, the days of cannabis use was significantly lower among those in the DEI group (1.20 days) compared to the HEI group (2.15 days; p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

For those who adhered to the exercise intervention, vigorous intensity, high dose exercise resulted in less cannabis use. Results suggest that there were no significant short-term differences in cannabis use between the groups. Further study on the long-term impact of exercise as a treatment to reduce cannabis use should be considered.

Aerobic Fitness Level Moderates the Association Between Cannabis Use and Executive Functioning and Psychomotor Speed Following Abstinence in Adolescents and Young Adults

OBJECTIVES

The high rate of cannabis (CAN) use in emerging adults is concerning given prior research suggesting neurocognitive deficits associated with CAN use in youth. Regular CAN use downregulates endocannabinoid activity, while aerobic exercise upregulates cannabinoid receptor 1 activity and releases endocannabinoids. Here we investigate the influence of regular CAN use on neuropsychological performance, and whether aerobic fitness moderates these effects.

METHODS

Seventy-nine young adults (37 CAN users) aged 16-26 participated. Groups were balanced for aerobic fitness level. Exclusion criteria included: left-handedness, past-year independent Axis-I disorders, major medical/neurologic disorders, prenatal issues, or prenatal alcohol/illicit drug exposure. After 3 weeks of abstinence, participants completed a neuropsychological battery and a maximal oxygen consumption test (VO2 max). Multiple regressions tested whether past-year CAN use, VO2 max, and CAN*VO2 max interaction predicted neuropsychological performance, controlling for past-year alcohol use, cotinine, gender, and depression symptoms.

RESULTS

Increased CAN use was associated with decreased performance on working memory and psychomotor tasks. High aerobic fitness level was related to better performance on visual memory, verbal fluency, and sequencing ability. CAN*VO2 max predicted performance of psychomotor speed, visual memory, and sequencing ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Following monitored abstinence, increased CAN use was associated with poorer performance in working memory and psychomotor speed. Higher aerobic fitness level moderated the impact of CAN on visual memory, executive function and psychomotor speed, as more aerobically fit CAN users demonstrated better performance relative to low-fit users. Therefore, aerobic fitness may present an affordable and efficacious method to improve cognitive functioning in CAN users. (JINS, 2019, 25, 134-145).

Effects of exercise on experimentally manipulated craving for cannabis: A preliminary study

Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, and craving for cannabis is related to cannabis use. Exercise has been demonstrated to reduce craving for substances. To examine the effects of exercise on cannabis craving, we conducted a 3-week within-subject crossover experiment. Young-adult men (n = 35) and women (n = 11), age 18-25 years (M = 20.76, SD = 1.68), who regularly (≥3 times per week) used cannabis participated in a cue exposure paradigm to stimulate craving. After each of three separate craving inductions, they completed a 10-min bout of exercise that varied in intensity (rest, moderate, vigorous). Craving was assessed before and after the induction, immediately following the exercise, and at three 10-min intervals (total of 30 min). Results of condition-specific, repeated measures analyses of variance showed nonsignificant reductions in immediate postexercise craving for the moderate and vigorous conditions. We used latent growth modeling to examine the trajectory of craving rebound during the 30 min following exercise and explored the effect of baseline weekly cannabis use in predicting craving rebound. Within 30 min postexercise, craving rebounded for both the moderate, F(3, 135) = 9.10, p < .01, and vigorous, F(3, 135) = 3.48, p < .05, conditions. We found that among cannabis users reporting larger quantities of typical weekly cannabis use, craving rebounded more quickly following vigorous than moderate exercise, b = 0.02, SE = 0.02, 95% confidence interval [0.00, 0.06]. The findings suggest that moderate exercise may be useful for reducing craving, particularly among those who use larger quantities of cannabis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

GABA concentration in sensorimotor cortex following high-intensity exercise and relationship to lactate levels

KEY POINTS

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy was conducted before and after high-intensity interval exercise. Sensorimotor cortex GABA concentration increased by 20%. The increase was positively correlated with the increase in blood lactate. There was no change in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. There were no changes in the glutamate-glutamine-glutathione peak.

ABSTRACT

High-intensity exercise increases the concentration of circulating lactate. Cortical uptake of blood borne lactate increases during and after exercise; however, the potential relationship with changes in the concentration of neurometabolites remains unclear. Although changes in neurometabolite concentration have previously been demonstrated in primary visual cortex after exercise, it remains unknown whether these changes extend to regions such as the sensorimotor cortex (SM) or executive regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). In the present study, we explored the acute after-effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the concentration of gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and the combined glutamate-glutamine-glutathione (Glx) spectral peak in the SM and DLPFC, as well as the relationship with blood lactate levels. Following HIIT, there was a robust increase in GABA concentration in the SM, as evident across the majority of participants. This change was not observed in the DLPFC. Furthermore, the increase in SM GABA was positively correlated with an increase in blood lactate. There were no changes in Glx concentration in either region. The observed increase in SM GABA concentration implies functional relevance, whereas the correlation with lactate levels may relate to the metabolic fate of exercise-derived lactate that crosses the blood-brain barrier.

Exercise in the Treatment of Youth Substance Use Disorders: Review and Recommendations

Substance use disorders among youth represent a significant public health concern. It is well established that regular exercise provides important physical and mental health benefits; however, evidence for the role of exercise as an adjunct component within substance use disorder treatment is scarce. In this review, we identify factors associated with the development and persistence of substance use disorders among youth, identify current treatment modalities, and present evidence to support the efficacy of incorporating exercise participation during rehabilitation. We also provide a series of recommendations for future research that explores the feasibility and effectiveness of exercise participation as a complement to substance use disorder treatment among youth.