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Saito H, Nakagawa K, Kitamura Y, Kuwata K, Tanaka E. Molecular survey of infectious bronchitis virus on poultry farms in Gifu Prefecture, Japan from 2021 to 2022 by RT-PCR with an enhanced level of detection sensitivity for the S1 gene. J Vet Med Sci 2022; 84:1157-1163. [PMID: 35793951 PMCID: PMC9523290 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.22-0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the causative agent of infectious bronchitis (IB) in chickens. There is a correlation between cross-protection and percentage of similarity between
nucleotide sequences encoding the S1 subunit, which is responsible for generating neutralizing and serotype-specific antibodies. Therefore, RT-PCR is commonly used to amplify the IBV-S1 gene
following DNA sequencing in order to predict the efficacy of vaccines against IBV strains. We successfully enhanced the sensitivity for detection of the IBV-S1 gene by second PCR after
purification of the 1st RT-PCR product. Using that method, we obtained detailed information on the prevalence of IBV on poultry farms in Gifu Prefecture, Japan. The IBV-S1 gene detection
method used in the current study will enable accurate information on the prevalence of IBV in Japan to be obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keisuke Nakagawa
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University.,Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University.,Education and Research Center for Food Animal Health, Gifu University
| | - Yuko Kitamura
- Gifu Prefectural Chuo Livestock Hygiene Service Center
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2
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Marchenko V, Kolosova N, Danilenko A, Bragina M, Nhai T, Ryzhikov A. Diversity of coronaviruses in wild and domestic birds in Vietnam. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2022. [DOI: 10.4103/1995-7645.359785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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3
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Parkhe P, Verma S. Evolution, Interspecies Transmission, and Zoonotic Significance of Animal Coronaviruses. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:719834. [PMID: 34738021 PMCID: PMC8560429 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.719834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses are single-stranded RNA viruses that affect humans and a wide variety of animal species, including livestock, wild animals, birds, and pets. These viruses have an affinity for different tissues, such as those of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract of most mammals and birds and the hepatic and nervous tissues of rodents and porcine. As coronaviruses target different host cell receptors and show divergence in the sequences and motifs of their structural and accessory proteins, they are classified into groups, which may explain the evolutionary relationship between them. The interspecies transmission, zoonotic potential, and ability to mutate at a higher rate and emerge into variants of concern highlight their importance in the medical and veterinary fields. The contribution of various factors that result in their evolution will provide better insight and may help to understand the complexity of coronaviruses in the face of pandemics. In this review, important aspects of coronaviruses infecting livestock, birds, and pets, in particular, their structure and genome organization having a bearing on evolutionary and zoonotic outcomes, have been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Subhash Verma
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, DGCN College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, India
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4
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Parvin R, Begum JA, Nooruzzaman M, Kabiraj CK, Chowdhury EH. Circulation of three genotypes and identification of unique mutations in neutralizing epitopes of infectious bronchitis virus in chickens in Bangladesh. Arch Virol 2021; 166:3093-3103. [PMID: 34480638 PMCID: PMC8418280 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05227-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis (IB) is a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by a gammacoronavirus that has been circulating for many years in chickens in Bangladesh, resulting in significant economic losses. The aim of this study was to detect and characterize infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) from clinical outbreaks and surveillance samples. Real-time RT-PCR was used to detect IBV in pooled lung and tracheal tissue samples (n = 78), oropharyngeal swabs (n = 19), and pooled fecal samples (n = 13) from live-bird markets. Both respiratory and nephropathogenic forms of IB were suspected at necropsy (n = 7) from clinical outbreaks. Sequencing of hypervariable regions (HVR1-2 and HVR3) of the region of the spike gene (S) encoding the S1 subunit of five isolates revealed circulation of the Mass-like, QX-like, and 4/91-like genotypes of IBV in Bangladesh. Each genotype was extremely variable, as shown by separate clustering of the viruses in a phylogenetic tree and high nucleotide (nt) sequence divergence (38.8-41.2% and 25.7-37.4% in the HVR1-2 and HVR3 sequence, respectively). The unique mutation G65E was observed in each Mass-like isolate, and Y328S was observed in each 4/91-like Bangladeshi isolate. Three neutralizing epitope sites were predicted within the HVRs that differed significantly among the three genotypes. In addition, one Bangladeshi isolate carried fixed mutations at 294F and 306Y, like other pathogenic QX-like IBVs, which could affect epitopes involved in neutralization, facilitating virus circulation among vaccinated flocks. Therefore, continuous screening and genotype characterization will be necessary to track the epidemiology of IBV and control IB infection in Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rokshana Parvin
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh.
| | - Jahan Ara Begum
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammed Nooruzzaman
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Congriev Kumar Kabiraj
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Emdadul Haque Chowdhury
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
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5
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Quinteros JA, Ignjatovic J, Chousalkar KK, Noormohammadi AH, Browning GF. Infectious bronchitis virus in Australia: a model of coronavirus evolution - a review. Avian Pathol 2021; 50:295-310. [PMID: 34126817 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2021.1939858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) was first isolated in Australia in 1962. Ongoing surveillance and characterization of Australian IBVs have shown that they have evolved separately from strains found throughout the rest of the world, resulting in the evolution of a range of unique strains and changes in the dominant wild-type strains, affecting tissue tropism, pathogenicity, antigenicity, and gene arrangement. Between 1961 and 1976 highly nephropathogenic genotype GI-5 and GI-6 strains, causing mortalities of 40% to 100%, predominated, while strains causing mainly respiratory disease, with lower mortality rates, have predominated since then. Since 1988, viruses belonging to two distinct and novel genotypes, GIII and GV, have been detected. The genome organization of the GIII strains has not been seen in any other gammacoronavirus. Mutations that emerged soon after the introduction of vaccination, incursion of strains with a novel lineage from unknown sources, recombination between IBVs from different genetic lineages, and gene translocations and deletions have contributed to an increasingly complex IBV population. These processes and the consequences of this variation for the biology of these viruses provide an insight into the evolution of endemic coronaviruses during their control by vaccination and may provide a better understanding of the potential for evolution of other coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, the continuing capacity of attenuated IBV vaccines developed over 40 years ago to provide protection against viruses in the same genetic lineage provides some assurance that coronavirus vaccines developed to control other coronaviruses may continue to be effective for an extended period.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A Quinteros
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Jagoda Ignjatovic
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Australia
| | - Kapil K Chousalkar
- School of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia
| | - Amir H Noormohammadi
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Australia
| | - Glenn F Browning
- Asia-Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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Jeni RE, Dittoe DK, Olson EG, Lourenco J, Seidel DS, Ricke SC, Callaway TR. An overview of health challenges in alternative poultry production systems. Poult Sci 2021; 100:101173. [PMID: 34058563 PMCID: PMC8170424 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to consumer demand and changing welfare standards on health, ecology, equity, and safety concepts, poultry production has changed markedly over the past 20 y. One of the greatest changes to poultry production standards is now offering poultry limited access to the outdoors in alternative and organic poultry production operations. Although operations allowing access to the outdoors are still only a small portion of commercial poultry production, it may impact the gastrointestinal (GIT) health of the bird in different ways than birds raised under conventional management systems. The present review describes current research results in alternative systems by identifying how different poultry production operations (diet, environmental disruptive factors, diseases) impact the ecology and health of the GIT. Various research efforts will be discussed that illustrate the nutritional value of free-range forages and how forages could be beneficial to animal health and production of both meat and eggs. The review also highlights the need for potential interventions to limit diseases without using antibiotics. These alternatives could enhance both economics and sustainability in organic and free-range poultry production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rim El Jeni
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Dana K Dittoe
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
| | - Elena G Olson
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
| | - Jeferson Lourenco
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Darren S Seidel
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Steven C Ricke
- Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Meat Science and Animal Biologics Discovery Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
| | - Todd R Callaway
- Department of Animal and Dairy Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
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Recombination Events Shape the Genomic Evolution of Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Europe. Viruses 2021; 13:v13040535. [PMID: 33804824 PMCID: PMC8063831 DOI: 10.3390/v13040535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis of chicken is a high morbidity and mortality viral disease affecting the poultry industry worldwide; therefore, a better understanding of this pathogen is of utmost importance. The primary aim of this study was to obtain a deeper insight into the genomic diversity of field infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strains using phylogenetic and recombination analysis. We sequenced the genome of 20 randomly selected strains from seven European countries. After sequencing, we created a genome sequence data set that contained 36 European origin field isolates and 33 vaccine strains. When analyzing these 69 IBV genome sequences, we identified 215 recombination events highlighting that some strains had multiple recombination breaking points. Recombination hot spots were identified mostly in the regions coding for non-structural proteins, and multiple recombination hot spots were identified in the nsp2, nsp3, nsp8, and nsp12 coding regions. Recombination occurred among different IBV genotypes and involved both field and vaccine IBV strains. Ninety percent of field strains and nearly half of vaccine strains showed evidence of recombination. Despite the low number and the scattered geographical and temporal origin of whole-genome sequence data collected from European Gammacoronaviruses, this study underlines the importance of recombination as a major evolutionary mechanism of IBVs.
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Suryaman GK, Soejoedono RD, Setiyono A, Poetri ON, Handharyani E. Isolation and characterization of avian coronavirus from healthy Eclectus parrots ( Eclectus roratus) from Indonesia. Vet World 2019; 12:1797-1805. [PMID: 32009759 PMCID: PMC6925039 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2019.1797-1805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Avian coronavirus has a wide range of hosts, from chickens and turkeys to wild birds. This virus causes an economically and, possibly, environmentally, important loss in the poultry industry. Therefore, research into the avian coronavirus in various species of birds is required. The Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) is an endemic bird to Indonesia and Northern Australia and often kept as pets. At present, there has been limited information about avian coronavirus infection among birds. This study aimed to determine the presence of and to characterize avian coronavirus isolated from Eclectus parrots in Indonesia. Materials and Methods: Cloacal swab samples were taken from 10 healthy Eclectus parrots (E. roratus). Each isolate was propagated into specific pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs. The presence of avian coronavirus was determined using three sets of primers targeting the 3’ untranslated region (3’-UTR) of avian coronavirus (UTR41+/11−), the N gene of the infectious bronchitis virus (IBVN+/−), and the S1 gene of the IBV (XCE2+/XCE2−). The infectious bronchitis vaccine strain H120 was used as a positive control. Resulting positive bands were sequenced for the S1 gene. Results: None of the isolates was positive for the 3’-UTR, four isolates were positive for the N gene of infectious bronchitis, and two isolates were positive for the S1 gene of the IBV. However, only one isolate (parrot/Indonesia/BX9/16) was sequenced for the partial S1 gene with primers XCE2+/XCE2−. The partial nucleotide sequence of this isolate showed 100% homology with the IBV GI-13 lineage, specifically with a field isolate of the 4/91 variant 1 Israel and the 4/91 vaccine on the hypervariable region 3 site of the S1 gene. Conclusion: An IB-like avian coronavirus was isolated from healthy Eclectus parrots. Our results indicate that IBV has a wide range of hosts, which prompt the need to understand the interspecies connection of this virus better.
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Affiliation(s)
- G K Suryaman
- Department of Clinic Reproduction and Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Agatis, Kampus IPB, Dramaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - R D Soejoedono
- Department of Animal Disease and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Agatis, Kampus IPB, Dramaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - A Setiyono
- Department of Clinic Reproduction and Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Agatis, Kampus IPB, Dramaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - O N Poetri
- Department of Animal Disease and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Agatis, Kampus IPB, Dramaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - E Handharyani
- Department of Clinic Reproduction and Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Agatis, Kampus IPB, Dramaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
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Kato A, Oguro S, Kurihara Y, Kojima H, Inayoshi Y, Lin Z, Sasakawa C, Shibuya K. Repeated avian infectious bronchitis virus infections within a single chicken farm. J Vet Med Sci 2019; 81:636-640. [PMID: 30828040 PMCID: PMC6483923 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.18-0722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Genotyping of avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) was performed on trachea and kidney
samples of six chickens obtained from a single farm in Japan. Using two primer sets
targeting the spike (S) protein gene, the S1 and S2 regions of DNA fragments were
amplified. Sequences of amplified S1 fragments extracted from both organs were identical
among the six chickens, showing a JP-I genotype. Sequences of amplified S2 fragments
differed between trachea and kidney samples. The kidney profile showed a group IV
genotype, whereas the trachea profile showed an unclassified group. This result showed
that two different IBVs infected the six chickens. The first IBV infection induced poor
protective immunity in this farm, permitting a second IBV infection to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Kato
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
| | - Shiori Oguro
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
| | - Yukino Kurihara
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
| | - Hiroe Kojima
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
| | - Yujin Inayoshi
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
| | - Zhifeng Lin
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
| | - Chihiro Sasakawa
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan.,Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba 260-8673, Japan
| | - Kazumoto Shibuya
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, 9-2221-1 Shin-machi, Ome, Tokyo 198-0024, Japan
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Zhao W, Gao M, Xu Q, Xu Y, Zhao Y, Chen Y, Zhang T, Wang Q, Han Z, Li H, Chen L, Liang S, Shao Y, Liu S. Origin and evolution of LX4 genotype infectious bronchitis coronavirus in China. Vet Microbiol 2016; 198:9-16. [PMID: 28062013 PMCID: PMC7117135 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the genomic characteristics of 110 LX4 genotype strains of infectious bronchitis viruses (IBVs) isolated between 1995 and 2005 in China. The genome of these IBVs varies in size from 27596bp to 27790bp. Most IBV strains have the typical genomic organization of other gamacoronaviruses, however, two strains lacked 3a and 5b genes as a result of a nucleotide change within the start codon in the 3a or 5b genes. Analysis of our 110 viruses revealed that recombination events may be responsible for the emergence of the LX4 genotype with different topologies. Most of these viruses disappeared (before mid-2005) because they were not "fit" to adaptation in chickens. Finally, those of the "fit" viruses (after mid-2005) continued to evolve and have become widespread and predominant in commercial poultry. In addition, few of these viruses experienced recombination with those of the vaccine strains at the 3' end of the genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjun Zhao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengying Gao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Qianqian Xu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Xu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuqiu Chen
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiuling Wang
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongxi Han
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Huixin Li
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingfeng Chen
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuling Liang
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhao Shao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengwang Liu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, People's Republic of China.
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