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Talsnes RK, Berdal T, Brattebø JM, Seeberg T, Losnegard T, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Comprehensive analysis of performance, physiological, and perceptual responses during an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:1015-1025. [PMID: 37804364 PMCID: PMC10879232 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05326-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate performance, physiological, and perceptual responses of an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition in the skating style. METHODS Eighteen national-level male junior skiers participated in a simulated competition comprising an individual time trial (TT), followed by three heats (quarterfinals [QF], semifinals [SF], and final [F]). Participants' heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored while perceived readiness (RED, 1-10), rating of perceived exertion (RPE, 6-20), and blood lactate [La-] were assessed at standardized time points. RESULTS The total duration and distance covered were 03:30 ± 00:06 h and 25.2 ± 2.9 km, respectively. The participants spent 02:19 ± 00:27 h > 60% of their maximal HR (HRmax) and 00:16 ± 00:04 h > 85% of HRmax. Average HR decreased from TT to F (89.3 ± 2.0% vs. 86.9 ± 3.0% of HRmax, P < 0.01). [La-] levels were highest before (4.6 ± 2.0 vs. 2.9 ± 1.2, 3.2 ± 2.0 and 2.5 ± 1.3 mmol·L-1, all P < 0.01) and after (10.8 ± 1.4 vs. 9.8 ± 1.6, 9.1 ± 1.8 and 8.7 ± 1.7 mmol·L-1, all P < 0.05) F compared to TT, QF, and SF, respectively. RED was lowest before F compared to TT, QF, and SF (6.6 ± 1.4 vs. 7.9 ± 1.1, 7.6 ± 1.1, and 7.4 ± 1.4, respectively, all P < 0.05) while RPE was highest after TT compared to QF, SF, and F (17.8 ± 0.9 vs. 15.1 ± 2.0, 16.5 ± 1.2 and 16.6 ± 1.8, respectively, all P < 0.01). The six best-performing skiers demonstrated higher RED before F (7.2 ± 0.9 vs. 5.3 ± 1.2, P < 0.05) and higher [La-] after F (11.2 ± 0.2 vs. 10.2 ± 0.3, mmol·L-1, P < 0.05) than lower-performing competitors. CONCLUSION This study provides novel insights into physiological demands of an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition, which involves repeated 3-min high-intensity efforts interspersed with > 2 h (25 km) of low- to moderate-intensity exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Tore Berdal
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan-Magnus Brattebø
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Trine Seeberg
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Talsnes RK, Brattebø JM, Berdal T, Seeberg T, Skovereng K, Losnegard T, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Performance-Determining Variables of a Simulated Sprint Cross-Country Skiing Competition. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:95-104. [PMID: 37931616 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate performance-determining variables of an on-snow sprint cross-country skiing competition and the evolvement in their relationship with performance as the competition progresses from the individual time trial (TT) to the final. METHODS Sixteen national-level male junior skiers (mean [SD] age, 18.6 [0.8] y; peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak], 67.6 [5.5] mL·min-1·kg-1) performed a simulated sprint competition (1.3 km) in the skating style, comprising a TT followed by 3 finals (quarterfinals, semifinals, and final) completed by all skiers. In addition, submaximal and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, on-snow maximal speed tests, and strength/power tests were performed. RESULTS VO2peak and peak treadmill speed during incremental testing and relative heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentrations, and gross efficiency during submaximal testing were all significantly correlated with performance in the TT and subsequent finals (mean [range] r values: .67 [.53-.86], all P < .05). Relative VO2peak and submaximal relative heart rate and blood lactate concentration were more strongly correlated with performance in the semifinals and final compared with the TT (r values: .74 [.60-.83] vs 0.55 [.51-.60], all P < .05). Maximal speed in uphill and flat terrain was significantly correlated with performance in the TT and subsequent finals (r values: .63 [.38-.70], all P < .05), while strength/power tests did not correlate significantly with sprint performance. CONCLUSIONS VO2peak and high-speed abilities were the most important determinants of sprint cross-country skiing performance, with an increased importance of VO2peak as the competition format progressed toward the final.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan-Magnus Brattebø
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Tore Berdal
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Trine Seeberg
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Knut Skovereng
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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The influence of race tactics for performance in the heats of an international sprint cross-country skiing competition. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278552. [PMID: 36490303 PMCID: PMC9733856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of race tactics for performance in the heats of an international sprint cross-country (XC) skiing competition in the classical style. Thirty elite male XC skiers (age: 24±3 years, sprint International Ski Federation [FIS] points: 61±27) performed a sprint time-trial (STT) followed by one to three 'knock-out' heats on a 1.7 km racecourse. An integrated GNSS/IMU system was used to determine position, sub-technique distribution and kinematics. Positioning was analysed using the television broadcast of the race. STT rank correlated positively with the final rank [(rs (28) = .72, P = .001)]. The top-two finishers in each heat were on average ~3.8% slower in the heats compared to the STT (237.1±3.9 vs. 228.3±4.0 seconds, P = .001). On average, the skiers performed ~10 overtakings per 100 meters from the start to the last uphill segment but only ~3 overtakings per 100 meters in the last two segments in each heat. 93.8% of the top-two finishing skiers positioned themselves at top 2 before approaching the final uphill, in which the top-two finishers and the skiers ranked 3-4 were generally faster than those ranked 5-6 in the heats (both, P = .01). Here, top-four skiers employed 5.3% longer cycle lengths and 3.4% higher cycle rates in the diagonal sub-technique than skiers ranked 5-6 (all, P = .01). The present study demonstrates the importance of race tactics for performance in the heats of sprint XC skiing, in which the main performance-determining factors in the present racecourse were a front position when approaching the final uphill segment combined with the ability to ski fast in that segment. In general, this illustrates how accurate racecourse analyses may help skiers to optimize their race-individual race-strategies in the heats of sprint XC skiing competitions.
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Staunton CA, Sloof L, Brandts M, Jonsson Kårström M, Laaksonen MS, Björklund G. The Effect of Rifle Carriage on the Physiological and Accelerometer Responses During Biathlon Skiing. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:813784. [PMID: 35399594 PMCID: PMC8990322 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.813784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Investigate the effect of biathlon rifle carriage on physiological and accelerometer-derived responses during biathlon skiing. Methods Twenty-eight biathletes (11F, 17M) completed two XC skiing time-trials (~2,300 m), once with and once without the biathlon rifle, with concurrent measurements of HR, skiing speed and accelerations recorded from three triaxial accelerometers attached at the Upper-spine, Lower-spine and Pelvis. Exercise intensity was quantified from HR, skiing speed as well from accelerometry-derived PlayerLoad™ per minute (PL·min-1) and average net force (AvFNet). All metrics were analyzed during Uphill, Flat and Downhill sections of the course. Relationships between accelerometry-derived metrics and skiing speed were examined. Results Time-trials were faster for males compared with females (mean difference: 97 ± 73 s) and No-Rifle compared to With-Rifle (mean difference: 16 ± 9 s). HR was greatest during Downhill (183 ± 5 bpm), followed by Uphill (181 ± 5 bpm) and was lowest in the Flat sections (177 ± 6 bpm, p <0.05). For PL·min-1 and AvFNet there were 3-way Rifle x Gradient x Sensor-Position interactions. Typically, these metrics were greatest during Uphill and Flat sections and were lowest during Downhill sections. Rifle carriage had no impact on the AvFNet at the Lower-Spine or Pelvis. Significant positive linear relationships were identified between skiing speed and accelerometer-derived metrics during Uphill, Flat and Downhill skiing (r = 0.12-0.61, p < 0.05). Conclusions The accelerometry-derived approach used in this study provides the potential of a novel method of monitoring the external demands during skiing. In particular, AvFNet with sensors located close to the center of mass displayed greatest utility because it followed the expected response of external intensity where responses were greatest during uphill sections, followed by flats and lowest during downhills. In addition, there were significant positive relationships between AvFNet and skiing speed ranging from small to large. Accelerometry-derived measures could provide useful estimates of the external demands in XC skiing and biathlon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Staunton
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Luciën Sloof
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Maxime Brandts
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Institute of Sports Science, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Malin Jonsson Kårström
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Glenn Björklund
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Faculty of Human Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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McGawley K, Van Waerbeke C, Westberg KJ, Andersson EP. Maximizing recovery time between knock-out races improves sprint cross-country skiing performance. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:21-29. [PMID: 34936939 PMCID: PMC8848028 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a sprint cross-country (XC) ski competition, the difference in recovery times separating the first and the second semi-final (SF) heats from the final (F) may affect performance. The aim of the current study was to compare the effects of longer vs. shorter recovery periods prescribed between the 3 knock-out races of a simulated sprint XC ski competition involving a prologue (P), quarter-final (QF), SF, and F. METHODS Eleven well-trained XC ski athletes completed 2 simulated sprint XC ski competitions on a treadmill involving 4 × 883-m roller-ski bouts at a 4° incline using the gear 3 ski-skating sub-technique. The first 3 bouts were completed at a fixed speed (PFIX, QFFIX, and SFFIX) corresponding to ∼96% of each individual's previously determined maximal effort. The final bout was performed as a self-paced sprint time trial (FSTT). Test conditions differed by the time durations prescribed between the QFFIX, SFFIX, and FSTT, which simulated real-world XC ski competition conditions using maximum (MAX-REC) or minimum (MIN-REC) recovery periods. RESULTS The FSTT was completed 5.4 ± 5.5 s faster (p = 0.009) during MAX-REC (179.2 ± 18.1 s) compared to MIN-REC (184.6 ± 20.0 s), and this was linked to a significantly higher power output (p = 0.010) and total metabolic rate (p = 0.009). The pre FSTT blood lactate (BLa) concentration was significantly lower during MAX-REC compared to MIN-REC (2.5 ± 0.8 mmol/L vs. 3.6 ± 1.6 mmol/L, respectively; p = 0.027), and the pre-to-post FSTT increase in BLa was greater (8.8 ± 2.1 mmol/L vs. 7.1 ± 2.3 mmol/L, respectively; p = 0.024). No other differences for MAX-REC vs. MIN-REC reached significance (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Performance in a group of well-trained XC skiers is negatively affected when recovery times between sprint heats are minimized which, in competition conditions, would occur when selecting the last QF heat. This result is combined with a higher pre-race BLa concentration and a reduced rise in BLa concentration under shorter recovery conditions. These findings may help inform decision making when XC skiers are faced with selecting a QF heat within a sprint competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 831 25, Sweden.
| | - Coline Van Waerbeke
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 831 25, Sweden
| | - Karl-Johan Westberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 831 25, Sweden
| | - Erik P Andersson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 831 25, Sweden
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Marsland F, Anson JM, Waddington G, Holmberg HC, Chapman DW. Comparisons of Macro-Kinematic Strategies During the Rounds of a Cross-Country Skiing Sprint Competition in Classic Technique. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 2:546205. [PMID: 33585810 PMCID: PMC7876231 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.546205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to examine macro-kinematic parameters of six female cross-country skiers during the qualifying, semi-final and final rounds of a 1.1 km sprint competition in classical technique. During each round these skiers were monitored continuously with a single micro-sensor, and their cycle parameters and relative use of these two sub-techniques calculated. Within each round six sections of the course, during which all skiers employed either double pole (DP) or diagonal stride (DS) sub-technique, were chosen for additional analysis. The mean macro-kinematic cycle parameters and relative usage of sub-techniques over the full course did not differ significantly between rounds. On average 54% of the course was covered employing DP and 13% using DS, while 32% was covered utilizing a non-cyclical or irregular technique. With DP, the mean racing speed and cycle rate (CR) on the starting, middle and finishing sections of the course differed significantly, with no differences in mean cycle length (CL) between the last two sections. At the finish, higher DP speed was achieved by increasing CR. On the three hills, where all athletes utilized DS, mean racing speed and CL, but not mean CR, differed significantly. On these sections DS speed was increased by utilizing longer cycles. The individual skiers utilized a variety of macro-kinematic strategies during different rounds and on different sections of the course, depending on individual strengths, preferences and pacing strategies, as well as the course topography and tactical interactions with other skiers. Such collection of macro-kinematic data during competitions can help to identify an individual skier's strengths and weaknesses, guiding the testing of different cycle rates, and lengths on different terrains during training in order to optimize performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finn Marsland
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Judith Mary Anson
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Gordon Waddington
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | | | - Dale Wilson Chapman
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
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Solli GS, Haugnes P, Kocbach J, van den Tillaar R, Torvik PØ, Sandbakk Ø. The Effects of a Short Specific Versus a Long Traditional Warm-Up on Time-Trial Performance in Cross-Country Skiing Sprint. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15:941-948. [PMID: 32182587 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare the effects of a short specific and a long traditional warm-up on time-trial performance in cross-country skiing sprint using the skating style, as well as related differences in pacing strategy and physiological responses. METHODS In total, 14 (8 men and 6 women) national-level Norwegian cross-country skiers (age 20.4 [3.1] y; VO2max 65.9 [5.7] mL/kg/min) performed 2 types of warm-up (short, 8 × 100 m with gradual increase from 60% to 95% of maximal speed with a 1-min rest between sprints, and long, ∼35 min at low intensity, including 5 min at moderate and 3 min at high intensity) in a randomized order with 1 hour and 40 minutes of rest between tests. Each warm-up was followed by a 1.3-km sprint time trial, with continuous measurements of speed and heart rate. RESULTS No difference in total time for the time trial between the short and long warm-ups (199 [17] vs 200 [16] s; P = .952), or average speed and heart rate for the total course, or in the 6 terrain sections (all P < .41, η2 < .06) was found. There was an effect of order, with total time-trial time being shorter during test 2 than test 1 (197 [16] vs 202 [16] s; P = .004). No significant difference in blood lactate and rating of perceived exertion was found between the short versus long warm-ups or between test 1 and test 2 at any of the measurement points during the test day (P < .58, η2 > .01). CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that a short specific warm-up could be as effective as a long traditional warm-up during a sprint time trial in cross-country skiing.
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Zoppirolli C, Bortolan L, Schena F, Pellegrini B. Double poling kinematic changes during the course of a long-distance race: effect of performance level. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:863-872. [PMID: 32138604 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1736246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to evaluate the changes in double poling (DP) kinematics due to a long-distance cross-country skiing race in athletes with different performance levels. A total of 100 cross-country skiers, belonging to 10 different performance groups, were filmed on flat terrain 7 and 55 km after the start line, during a 58-km classical race. Cycle velocity, frequency and length decreased from the best to the lower-ranked group, while duty cycle increased (all P <.001). Between track sections, cycle velocity and length decreased, duty cycles increased (all P <.001) while frequency was unaltered (P =.782). Group*section interactions resulted for cycle velocity (P =.005). Considering all the participants together, % change in cycle velocity between sections correlated with % change in length and duty cycle (all P <.001). Thus i) skiers in better groups showed longer and more frequent cycles as well as shorter duty cycles than skiers in slower groups; ii) throughout the race all the groups maintained the same cycle frequency while decreasing cycle velocity and length; iii) better groups showed a lower reduction in cycle velocity. Individually, a low reduction in cycle velocity during the race related to the capacity to maintain long cycles and short duty cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Bortolan
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Federico Schena
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Sunde A, Johansen JM, Gjøra M, Paulsen G, Bråten M, Helgerud J, Støren Ø. Stronger Is Better: The Impact of Upper Body Strength in Double Poling Performance. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1091. [PMID: 31507453 PMCID: PMC6716506 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to compare time results from a roller-skiing double poling (DP) time trial with different physiological variables, muscular strength variables, and DP characteristics in both male and female young competitive skiers with the same relative training background. In order to do this, 28 (16 women and 12 men) well-trained 16–25-year-old cross-country skiers from three Norwegian high schools for skiers, as well as local high performance competitive skiers from the South-East of Norway were recruited to participate in the study. All participants were tested for; maximal oxygen uptake in running, Peak oxygen uptake in DP, lactate threshold in DP, DP economy, time to voluntary exhaustion in DP, force analyses in DP, one repetition maximum and power output in pulldown, and leg press and a time trial during DP roller skiing. The results expressed strong correlations between roller skiing time trial performance and maximal strength in pull-down, both independent (rxy = −0.83, p < 0.01) and dependent (rxy–z = −0.50, p < 0.02) of sex. Higher maximal upper body strength was related to higher DP peak forces (PF) (rxy = 0.78, p < 0.02), lower DP frequency (rxy = −0.71, p < 0.01), and shorter DP contact time (CT) (rxy = −0.48, p < 0.02). The practical implications of the present study is to acknowledge maximal upper body strength as a performance determining factor in DP. This point at the importance of including maximal strength training in cross-country skiers training programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnstein Sunde
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| | - Jan-Michael Johansen
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| | - Martin Gjøra
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
| | - Gøran Paulsen
- Department of Technical and Motor Development, The Norwegian Olympic Sports Center, Oslo, Norway
| | - Morten Bråten
- Department of Technical and Motor Development, The Norwegian Olympic Sports Center, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Helgerud
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine Trondheim, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Myworkout, Medical Rehabilitation Centre, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Støren
- Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Bø, Norway
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10
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The Effect of Maximal Speed Ability, Pacing Strategy, and Technique on the Finish Sprint of a Sprint Cross-Country Skiing Competition. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:788–795. [PMID: 30569776 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: To investigate the contribution from maximal speed (Vmax) and %Vmax to the finish sprint speed obtained in a cross-country sprint in the classical and skating style, as well as the coinciding changes in kinematic patterns and the effect of pacing strategy on the %Vmax. Methods: Twelve elite male cross-country skiers performed two 80-m Vmax tests on flat terrain using the classical double-poling and skating G3 techniques, followed by 4 simulated 1.4-km sprint time trials, performed with conservative (controlled start) and positive (hard start) pacing strategies in both styles with a randomized order. In all cases, these time trials were finalized by sprinting maximally over the last 80 m (the Vmax section). Results: Approximately 85% of Vmax was obtained in the finish sprint of the 1.4-km competitions, with Vmax and %Vmax contributing similarly (R2 = 51-78%) to explain the overall variance in finish sprint speed in all 4 cases (P < .05). The changes in kinematic pattern from the Vmax to the finish sprint included 11-22% reduced cycle rate in both styles (P < .01), without any changes in cycle length. A 3.6% faster finish sprint speed, explained by higher cycle rate, was found by conservative pacing in classic style (P < .001), whereas no difference was seen in skating. Conclusions: Vmax ability and %Vmax contributed similarly to explain the finish sprint speed, both in the classic and skating styles, and independent of pacing strategy. Therefore, sprint cross-country skiers should concurrently develop both these capacities and employ technical strategies where a high cycle rate can be sustained when fatigue occurs.
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11
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Losnegard T. Energy system contribution during competitive cross-country skiing. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:1675-1690. [PMID: 31076890 PMCID: PMC6647095 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04158-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Energy system contribution during cross-country (XC) skiing races is dependent on several factors, including the race duration, track profile, and sub-techniques applied, and their subsequent effects on the use of the upper and lower body. This review provides a scientific synopsis of the interactions of energy system contributions from a physiological, technical, and tactical perspective. On average, the aerobic proportion of the total energy expended during XC skiing competitions is comparable to the values for other sports with similar racing times. However, during both sprint (≤ 1.8 km) and distance races (≥ 10 and 15 km, women and men, respectively) a high aerobic turnover interacts with subsequent periods of very high work rates at ~ 120 to 160% of VO2peak during the uphill sections of the race. The repeated intensity fluctuations are possible due to the nature of skiing, which involves intermittent downhills where skiers can recover. Thus, the combination of high and sustained aerobic energy turnover and repeated work rates above VO2peak, interspersed with short recovery periods, distinguishes XC skiing from most other endurance sports. The substantially increased average speed in races over recent decades, frequent competitions in mass starts and sprints, and the greater importance of short periods at high speeds in various sub-techniques, have demanded changes in the physiological, technical, and tactical abilities needed to achieve world-class level within the specific disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Ullevål Stadion, Post box 4014, 0806, Oslo, Norway.
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Sagelv EH, Engseth TP, Pedersen S, Pettersen SA, Mathisen G, Heitmann KA, Welde B, Thomassen TO, Stöggl TL. Physiological Comparisons of Elite Male Visma Ski Classics and National Level Cross-Country Skiers During Uphill Treadmill Roller Skiing. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1523. [PMID: 30505276 PMCID: PMC6250767 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Longer distance cross-country ski (14–220 km) races such as the Visma Ski Classics (VSC) has recently gained attention in addition to the traditional Olympic distances (5–50 km) associated with cross-country (XC) skiing. These long-distance races are characterized by extensive use of the upper body while double poling (DP). While there is a substantial amount of research on Olympic distance XC skiing, the physiological capacities of VSC skiers has not yet been explored. We recruited seven elite male VSC skiers and seven well-trained national level male XC skiers to undergo three tests in the laboratory: (1) a one repetition maximum (1RM) strength test in a cable pulldown; (2) roller skiing tests on a treadmill (10.5% inclination) for determination of gross efficiency (GE) at submaximal speeds (8 and 10 km·h−1) in DP and diagonal stride (DS); (3) two ramp protocols to exhaustion (15% inclination, starting speed 7 km·h−1) in DP and DS for the assessment of peak and maximal oxygen uptake (V.O2peak and V.O2max), respectively. Compared with the national level XC skiers, the VSC skiers performed similar in the 1RM cable pulldown, displayed 12.2% higher GE in DP at 8 km·h−1 but did not display any difference at 10 km·h−1, and had lower blood lactate concentration and heart rate at both submaximal speeds. The VSC skiers had longer time to exhaustion compared with the national level XC skiers during the two ramp protocols in DS (18%) and in DP (29%). The V.O2max was 10% higher in DS compared with DP, with no differences between the groups. The V.O2peak/V.O2max-ratio of 90% did not differ between the two groups. In conclusion, the main differences were lower cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses at submaximal speeds as well as longer time to exhaustion in VSC skiers compared with national level XC skiers. This suggest efficiency to be the main difference between VSC and national level XC skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edvard H Sagelv
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tina P Engseth
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sigurd Pedersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Svein A Pettersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gunnar Mathisen
- Department of Teaching and Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Teaching, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kim A Heitmann
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Boye Welde
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tor O Thomassen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Thomas L Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Stöggl T, Pellegrini B, Holmberg HC. Pacing and predictors of performance during cross-country skiing races: A systematic review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:381-393. [PMID: 30450246 PMCID: PMC6234023 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cross-country skiing (XCS) racing, a popular international winter sport, is complex and challenging from physical, technical, and tactical perspectives. Despite the vast amount of research focusing on this sport, no review has yet addressed the pacing strategies of elite XCS racers or the factors that influence their performance. The aim was to review the scientific literature in an attempt to determine the effects of pacing strategy on the performance of elite XCS racers. METHODS Four electronic databases were searched using relevant subject headings and keywords. Only original research articles published in peer-reviewed journals and the English language and addressing performance, biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry of XCS racers were reviewed. RESULTS All 27 included articles applied correlative designs to study the effectiveness of different pacing strategies. None of the articles involved the use of an experimental design. Furthermore, potential changes in external conditions (e.g., weather, ski properties) were not taken into consideration. A comparable number of studies focused on the skating or classical technique. In most cases, positive pacing was observed, with certain indications that higher-level athletes and those with more endurance and strength utilized a more even pacing strategy. The ability to achieve and maintain a long cycle length on all types of terrain was an important determinant of performance in all of the included studies, which was not the case for cycle rate. In general, uphill performance was closely related to overall race performance, with uphill performance being most closely correlated to the success of female skiers and performance on flat terrain being more important for male skiers. Moreover, pacing was coupled to the selection and distribution of technique during a race, with faster skiers employing more double poling and kick double poling, less diagonal stride, and more V2 (double dance) than V1 (single dance) skating across a race. CONCLUSION We propose that skiers at all levels can improve their performance with more specific training in techniques (i.e., maintaining long cycles without compromising cycle rate and selecting appropriate techniques) in combination with training for endurance and more strength. Furthermore, we would advise less experienced skiers and/or those with lower levels of performance to apply a more even pacing strategy rather than a positive one (i.e., starting the race too fast).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif 5400, Austria
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM Research Centre “Sport, Mountain, and Health,” Rovereto 36068, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona 37100, Italy
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83128, Sweden
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø 9037, Norway
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 121,Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17177, Sweden
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Exercise-induced trunk fatigue decreases double poling performance in well-trained cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:2077-2087. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3938-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Sprint events in cross-country skiing are unique not only with respect to their length (0.8-1.8 km), but also in involving four high-intensity heats of ~3 min in duration, separated by a relatively short recovery period (15-60 min). OBJECTIVE Our aim was to systematically review the scientific literature to identify factors related to the performance of elite sprint cross-country skiers. METHODS Four electronic databases were searched using relevant medical subject headings and keywords, as were reference lists, relevant journals, and key authors in the field. Only original research articles addressing physiology, biomechanics, anthropometry, or neuromuscular characteristics and elite sprint cross-country skiers and performance outcomes were included. All articles meeting inclusion criteria were quality assessed. Data were extracted from each article using a standardized form and subsequently summarized. RESULTS Thirty-one articles met the criteria for inclusion, were reviewed, and scored an average of 66 ± 7 % (range 56-78 %) upon quality assessment. All articles except for two were quasi-experimental, and only one had a fully-experimental research design. In total, articles comprised 567 subjects (74 % male), with only nine articles explicitly reporting their skiers' sprint International Skiing Federation points (weighted mean 116 ± 78). A similar number of articles addressed skating and classical techniques, with more than half of the investigations involving roller-skiing assessments under laboratory conditions. A range of physiological, biomechanical, anthropometric, and neuromuscular characteristics was reported to relate to sprint skiing performance. Both aerobic and anaerobic capacities are important qualities, with the anaerobic system suggested to contribute more to the performance during the first of repeated heats; and the aerobic system during subsequent heats. A capacity for high speed in all the following instances is important for the performance of sprint cross-country skiers: at the start of the race, at any given point when required (e.g., when being challenged by a competitor), and in the final section of each heat. Although high skiing speed is suggested to rely primarily on high cycle rates, longer cycle lengths are commonly observed in faster skiers. In addition, faster skiers rely on different technical strategies when approaching peak speeds, employ more effective techniques, and use better coordinated movements to optimize generation of propulsive force from the resultant ski and pole forces. Strong uphill technique is critical to race performance since uphill segments are the most influential on race outcomes. A certain strength level is required, although more does not necessarily translate to superior sprint skiing performance, and sufficient strength-endurance capacities are also of importance to minimize the impact and accumulation of fatigue during repeated heats. Lastly, higher lean mass does appear to benefit sprint skiers' performance, with no clear advantage conferred via body height and mass. LIMITATIONS Generalization of findings from one study to the next is challenging considering the array of experimental tasks, variables defining performance, fundamental differences between skiing techniques, and evolution of sprint skiing competitions. Although laboratory-based measures can effectively assess on-snow skiing performance, conclusions drawn from roller-skiing investigations might not fully apply to on-snow skiing performance. A low number of subjects were females (only 17 %), warranting further studies to better understand this population. Lastly, more training studies involving high-level elite sprint skiers and investigations pertaining to the ability of skiers to maintain high-sprint speeds at the end of races are recommended to assist in understanding and improving high-level sprint skiing performance, and resilience to fatigue. CONCLUSIONS Successful sprint cross-country skiing involves well-developed aerobic and anaerobic capacities, high speed abilities, effective biomechanical techniques, and the ability to develop high forces rapidly. A certain level of strength is required, particularly ski-specific strength, as well as the ability to withstand fatigue across the repeated heats of sprint races. Cross-country sprint skiing is demonstrably a demanding and complex sport, where high-performance skiers need to simultaneously address physiological, biomechanical, anthropometric, and neuromuscular aspects to ensure success.
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Marsland F, Anson J, Waddington G, Holmberg HC, Chapman DW. Macro-Kinematic Differences Between Sprint and Distance Cross-Country Skiing Competitions Using the Classical Technique. Front Physiol 2018; 9:570. [PMID: 29867588 PMCID: PMC5966557 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We compare the macro-kinematics of six elite female cross-country skiers competing in 1.1-km Sprint and 10.5-km Distance classical technique events on consecutive days under similar weather and track conditions. The relative use of double pole (DP), kick-double pole (KDP), diagonal stride (DS), tucking (Tuck) and turning (Turn) sub-techniques, plus each technique’s respective velocities, cycle lengths and cycle rates were monitored using a single micro-sensor unit worn by each skier during the Sprint qualification, semi-final and finals, and multiple laps of the Distance race. Over a 1.0-km section of track common to both Sprint and Distance events, the mean race velocity, cyclical sub-technique velocities, and cycle rates were higher during the Sprint race, while Tuck and Turn velocities were similar. Velocities with KDP and DS on the common terrain were higher in the Sprint (KDP +12%, DS +23%) due to faster cycle rates (KDP +8%, DS +11%) and longer cycle lengths (KDP +5%, DS +10%), while the DP velocity was higher (+8%) with faster cycle rate (+16%) despite a shorter cycle length (-9%). During the Sprint the percentage of total distance covered using DP was greater (+15%), with less use of Tuck (-19%). Across all events and rounds, DP was the most used sub-technique in terms of distance, followed by Tuck, DS, Turn and KDP. KDP was employed relatively little, and during the Sprint by only half the participants. Tuck was the fastest sub-technique followed by Turn, DP, KDP, and DS. These findings reveal differences in the macro-kinematic characteristics and strategies utilized during Sprint and Distance events, confirm the use of higher cycle rates in the Sprint, and increase our understanding of the performance demands of cross-country skiing competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finn Marsland
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Judith Anson
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Gordon Waddington
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- The Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid-Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Dale W Chapman
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Baumgart JK, Skovereng K, Sandbakk Ø. Comparison of Peak Oxygen Uptake and Test-Retest Reliability of Physiological Parameters between Closed-End and Incremental Upper-Body Poling Tests. Front Physiol 2017; 8:857. [PMID: 29163202 PMCID: PMC5670144 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To compare peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and the test-retest reliability of physiological parameters between a 1-min and a 3-min closed-end and an incremental open-end upper-body poling test. Methods: On two separate test days, 24 healthy, upper-body trained men (age: 28.3 ± 9.3 years, body mass: 77.4 ± 8.9 kg, height: 182 ± 7 cm) performed a 1-min, a 3-min and an incremental test to volitional exhaustion in the same random order. Respiratory parameters, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration (BLa), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and power output were measured. VO2peak was determined as the single highest 30-s average. Relative reliability was assessed with the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC2, 1) and absolute reliability with the standard error of measurement (SEM) and smallest detectable change (SDC). Results: The incremental (3.50 ± 0.46 L·min-1 and 45.4 ± 5.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) and the 3-min test (3.42 ± 0.47 L·min-1 and 44.5 ± 5.5 mL·kg-1·min-1) resulted in significantly higher absolute and body-mass normalized VO2peak compared to the 1-min test (3.13 ± 0.40 L·min-1 and 40.4 ± 5.0 mL·kg-1·min-1) (all comparisons, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the incremental test resulted in a significantly higher VO2peak as compared to the 3-min test (p < 0.001). VO2peak was significantly higher on day 1 than day 2 for the 1-min test (p < 0.05) and displayed a trend toward higher values on day 2 for the incremental test (p = 0.07). High and very high ICCs across all physiological parameters were found for the 1-min (0.827-0.956), the 3-min (0.916-0.949), and the incremental test (0.728-0.956). The SDC was consistently small for HR (1-min: 4%, 3-min: 4%, incremental: 3%), moderate for absolute and body-mass normalized VO2peak (1-min: 5%, 3-min: 6%, incremental: 7%) and large for BLa (1-min: 20%, 3-min: 12%, incremental: 22%). Conclusions: Whereas both the 3-min and the incremental test display high relative reliability, the incremental test induces slightly higher VO2peak. However, the 3-min test seems to be more stable with respect to day-to-day differences in VO2peak. The 1-min test would provide a reliable alternative when short test-duration is desirable, but is not recommended for testing VO2peak due to the clearly lower values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia K Baumgart
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Knut Skovereng
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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18
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Andersson E, Holmberg HC, Ørtenblad N, Björklund G. Metabolic Responses and Pacing Strategies during Successive Sprint Skiing Time Trials. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2017; 48:2544-2554. [PMID: 27414686 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to examine the metabolic responses and pacing strategies during the performance of successive sprint time trials (STTs) in cross-country skiing. METHODS Ten well-trained male cross-country skiers performed four self-paced 1300-m STTs on a treadmill, each separated by 45 min of recovery. The simulated sprint time trial (STT) course was divided into three flat (1°) sections (S1, S3, and S5) involving the double poling subtechnique interspersed with two uphill (7°) sections (S2 and S4) involving the diagonal stride subtechnique. Treadmill velocity and V˙O2 were monitored continuously, and gross efficiency was used to estimate the anaerobic energy supply. RESULTS The individual trial-to-trial variability in STTs performance time was 1.3%, where variations in O2 deficit and V˙O2 explained 69% (P < 0.05) and 11% (P > 0.05) of the variation in performance. The first and the last STTs were equally fast (228 ± 10 s) and ~1.3% faster than the second and the third STTs (P < 0.05). These two fastest STTs were associated with a 14% greater O2 deficit (P < 0.05), whereas the average V˙O2 was similar during all four STTs (86% ± 3% of V˙O2max). Positive pacing was used throughout all STTs, with significantly less time spent on the first than second course half. In addition, metabolic rates were substantially higher (~30%) for uphill than for flat skiing, indicating that pacing was regulated to the terrain. CONCLUSIONS The fastest STTs were characterized primarily by a greater anaerobic energy production, which also explained 69% of the individual variation in performance. Moreover, the skiers used positive pacing and a variable exercise intensity according to the course profile, yielding an irregular distribution of anaerobic energy production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Andersson
- 1Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, SWEDEN; 2Swedish Olympic Committee, Stockholm, SWEDEN; and 3Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Muscle Research Cluster, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, DENMARK
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Full course macro-kinematic analysis of a 10 km classical cross-country skiing competition. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182262. [PMID: 28763504 PMCID: PMC5538647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study micro-sensors were employed to analyse macro-kinematic parameters during a classical cross-country skiing competition (10 km, 2-lap). Data were collected from eight male participants during the Australian championship competition wearing a single micro-sensor unit (MinimaxX™, S4) positioned on their upper back. Algorithms and visual classification were used to identify skiing sub-techniques and calculate velocities, cycle lengths (CL) and cycle rates (CR) over the entire course. Double poling (DP) was the predominant cyclical sub-technique utilised (43 ± 5% of total distance), followed by diagonal stride (DS, 16 ± 4%) and kick double poling (KDP, 5 ± 4%), with the non-propulsive Tuck technique accounting for 24 ± 4% of the course. Large within-athlete variances in CL and CR occurred, particularly for DS (CV% = 25 ± 2% and CV% = 15 ± 2%, respectively). For all sub-techniques the mean CR on both laps and for the slower and faster skiers were similar, while there was a trend for the mean velocities in all sub-techniques by the faster athletes to be higher. Overall velocity and mean DP-CL were significantly higher on Lap 1, with no significant change in KDP-CL or DS-CL between laps. Distinct individual velocity thresholds for transitions between sub-techniques were observed. Clearly, valuable insights into cross-country skiing performance can be gained through continuous macro-kinematic monitoring during competition.
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Kim K, Panday SB, Shin IS, Kim JH, Kim HY, Yu GJ. Effect of prolonged racing on muscle activity and spatiotemporal variables: double-poling technique. J Phys Ther Sci 2017; 29:941-945. [PMID: 28603377 PMCID: PMC5462704 DOI: 10.1589/jpts.29.941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a 40-minute race on
muscle activity and spatiotemporal cycle variables at four-time points during a 12-km
roller skiing test using the double-poling technique. [Subjects and Methods] Five elite
cross-country (XC) skiers on the Korean National reserve team participated in the study.
Part of a biathlon course that consisted of both flat land and slopes was selected, and
three measurements were recorded after every 4-km lap. Spatiotemporal variables, mean
frequency and mean amplitude of 6 muscles were the chosen computational parameters.
[Results] Significant differences were observed in cycle time and rate. The mean frequency
of the upper-body muscles exhibited declining trends, with statistically significant
differences for the triceps brachii. In addition, there were significant differences in
the mean amplitude of the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius. The activity of the triceps
brachii, tibialis anterior, and gastrocnemius showed some degree of dependence on the
technique. [Conclusion] Training and race strategies that improve the function of elbow
extensors and ankle dorsiflexors are important in XC skiing; the application of roller-ski
training research to actual XC skiing competitions is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kitae Kim
- Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
| | - Siddhartha Bikram Panday
- Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea.,Department of Fitness Management, University of Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Sik Shin
- Department of Physical Education, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Hae Kim
- Department of Physical Education, Korea National Sport University, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Young Kim
- Division of Liberal Arts and Science, Korea National Sport University, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwang-Jae Yu
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea
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Gonzalez-Millan C, Perez-Brunicardi D, Salinero JJ, Lara B, Abián-Vicen J, Areces F, Ruiz-Vicente D, Soriano L, Del Coso J. Physiological Demands of Elite Cross-Country Skiing During a Real Competition. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31:1536-1543. [PMID: 28538302 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess different physiological variables before and after a 5-km (women) and 10-km (men) cross-country skiing competition to determine potential mechanisms of fatigue. Fourteen elite-level skiers competed in an official cross-country skiing competition using the classical style (9 men and 5 women). Instantaneous skiing velocity was measured during the race by means of 15-Hz global positioning system devices. Before and after the race, a sample of venous blood was obtained to assess changes in blood lactate and serum electrolyte and myoglobin concentrations. Prerace to postrace changes in blood oxygen saturation, forced vital capacity during a spirometry test, jump height during a countermovement jump, and handgrip force were also measured. Mean race speed was 15.8 ± 2.5 and 15.4 ± 1.5 km·h, whereas mean heart rate was 171 ± 6 and 177 ± 3 b·min for men and women, respectively. There were no significant prerace to postrace changes in jump height, handgrip force, and forced vital capacity in men and women. Blood oxygen saturation was reduced from prerace to postrace in men (95.9 ± 2.1% to 93.1 ± 2.3%, p = 0.02) and women (97.8 ± 1.1% to 92.4 ± 2.1%, p < 0.01), whereas blood lactate concentration increased at the end of the race in men (1.4 ± 0.5 to 4.9 ± 2.1 mmol·L, p < 0.01) and women (1.9 ± 0.1 to 6.9 ± 3.2 mmol·L, p < 0.01). After the race, blood markers of muscle damage were at low concentrations, whereas serum electrolytes remained unchanged. Fatigue in 5- and 10-km cross-country skiing competitions was related to a reduced blood oxygen carrying capacity and presumably increased muscle and blood acidosis, whereas the influence of exercise-induced muscle damage on fatigue was minor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Gonzalez-Millan
- 1Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain; 2Faculty of Education, University of Segovia, Segovia, Spain; and 3Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, University of Castilla La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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Ohtonen O, Lindinger SJ, Göpfert C, Rapp W, Linnamo V. Changes in biomechanics of skiing at maximal velocity caused by simulated 20-km skiing race using V2 skating technique. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2017; 28:479-486. [PMID: 28508404 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated how the fatigue caused by a 20-km simulated skating cross-country skiing race on snow affects the final spurt performance from a biomechanical perspective. Subjects performed a 100-m maximal skiing trial before and at the end of the simulated race. Cycle characteristics, ground reaction forces from skis and poles, and muscle activity from eight muscles were recorded during each trial. Results showed that subjects were in a fatigued state after the simulated race manifested by 11.6% lower skiing speed (P<.01). The lower skiing speed was related to an 8.0% decrease in cycle rate (P<.01), whereas cycle length was slightly decreased (tendency). In temporal patterns, relative kick time was increased (10.9%, P<.01) while relative poling time was slightly decreased (tendency). Vertical ski force production decreased by 8.3% while pole force production decreased by 26.0% (both, P<.01). Muscle activation was generally decreased in upper (39.2%) and lower body (30.7%) (both, P<.01). Together these findings show different responses to fatigue in the upper and lower body. In ski forces, fatigue was observed via longer force production times while force production levels decreased only slightly. Pole forces showed equal force production times in the fatigued state while force production level decreased threefold compared to the ski forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Ohtonen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - S J Lindinger
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - C Göpfert
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland.,Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - W Rapp
- Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - V Linnamo
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
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23
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Vandbakk K, Welde B, Kruken AH, Baumgart J, Ettema G, Karlsen T, Sandbakk Ø. Effects of upper-body sprint-interval training on strength and endurance capacities in female cross-country skiers. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172706. [PMID: 28241030 PMCID: PMC5328397 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study compared the effects of adding upper-body sprint-intervals or continuous double poling endurance training to the normal training on maximal upper-body strength and endurance capacity in female cross-country skiers. In total, 17 female skiers (age: 18.1±0.8yr, body mass: 60±7 kg, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max): 3.30±0.37 L.min-1) performed an 8-week training intervention. Here, either two weekly sessions of six to eight 30-s maximal upper-body double poling sprint-intervals (SIG, n = 8) or 45-75 min of continuous low-to-moderate intensity double poling on roller skis (CG, n = 9) were added to their training. Before and after the intervention, the participants were tested for physiological and kinematical responses during submaximal and maximal diagonal and double poling treadmill roller skiing. Additionally, we measured maximal upper-body strength (1RM) and average power at 40% 1RM in a poling-specific strength exercise. SIG improved absolute VO2max in diagonal skiing more than CG (8% vs 2%, p<0.05), and showed a tendency towards higher body-mass normalized VO2max (7% vs 2%, p = 0.07). Both groups had an overall improvement in double poling peak oxygen uptake (10% vs 6% for SIG and CG) (both p<0.01), but no group-difference was observed. SIG improved 1RM strength more than CG (18% vs 10%, p<0.05), while there was a tendency for difference in average power at 40% 1RM (20% vs 14%, p = 0.06). Oxygen cost and kinematics (cycle length and rate) in double poling and diagonal remained unchanged in both groups. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that adding upper-body sprint-interval training is more effective than continuous endurance training in improving upper-body maximal strength and VO2max.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Vandbakk
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Levanger, Norway
| | - Boye Welde
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Levanger, Norway
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Andrea Hovstein Kruken
- K.G. Jebsen Center of Exercise in Medicine, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Julia Baumgart
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Gertjan Ettema
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Trine Karlsen
- K.G. Jebsen Center of Exercise in Medicine, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- St. Olav’s Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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24
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Carlsson T, Tonkonogi M, Carlsson M. Aerobic power and lean mass are indicators of competitive sprint performance among elite female cross-country skiers. Open Access J Sports Med 2016; 7:153-160. [PMID: 27877070 PMCID: PMC5110205 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s116672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to establish the optimal allometric models to predict International Ski Federation’s ski-ranking points for sprint competitions (FISsprint) among elite female cross-country skiers based on maximal oxygen uptake (
V˙O2max) and lean mass (LM). Ten elite female cross-country skiers (age: 24.5±2.8 years [mean ± SD]) completed a treadmill roller-skiing test to determine
V˙O2max (ie, aerobic power) using the diagonal stride technique, whereas LM (ie, a surrogate indicator of anaerobic capacity) was determined by dual-emission X-ray anthropometry. The subjects’ FISsprint were used as competitive performance measures. Power function modeling was used to predict the skiers’ FISsprint based on
V˙O2max, LM, and body mass. The subjects’ test and performance data were as follows:
V˙O2max, 4.0±0.3 L min−1; LM, 48.9±4.4 kg; body mass, 64.0±5.2 kg; and FISsprint, 116.4±59.6 points. The following power function models were established for the prediction of FISsprint:
3.91×105⋅V˙O2max−6.00 and 6.95 × 1010 · LM−5.25; these models explained 66% (P=0.0043) and 52% (P=0.019), respectively, of the variance in the FISsprint. Body mass failed to contribute to both models; hence, the models are based on
V˙O2max and LM expressed absolutely. The results demonstrate that the physiological variables that reflect aerobic power and anaerobic capacity are important indicators of competitive sprint performance among elite female skiers. To accurately indicate performance capability among elite female skiers, the presented power function models should be used. Skiers whose
V˙O2max differs by 1% will differ in their FISsprint by 5.8%, whereas the corresponding 1% difference in LM is related to an FISsprint difference of 5.1%, where both differences are in favor of the skier with higher
V˙O2max or LM. It is recommended that coaches use the absolute expression of these variables to monitor skiers’ performance-related training adaptations linked to changes in aerobic power and anaerobic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| | - Michail Tonkonogi
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| | - Magnus Carlsson
- School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
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25
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Boccia G, Dardanello D, Zoppirolli C, Bortolan L, Cescon C, Schneebeli A, Vernillo G, Schena F, Rainoldi A, Pellegrini B. Central and peripheral fatigue in knee and elbow extensor muscles after a long-distance cross-country ski race. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016; 27:945-955. [PMID: 27293016 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Although elbow extensors (EE) have a great role in cross-country skiing (XC) propulsion, previous studies on neuromuscular fatigue in long-distance XC have investigated only knee extensor (KE) muscles. In order to investigate the origin and effects of fatigue induced by long-distance XC race, 16 well-trained XC skiers were tested before and after a 56-km classical technique race. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) and rate of force development (RFD) were measured for both KE and EE. Furthermore, electrically evoked double twitch during MVC and at rest were measured. MVC decreased more in KE (-13%) than in EE (-6%, P = 0.016), whereas the peak RFD decreased only in EE (-26%, P = 0.02) but not in KE. The two muscles showed similar decrease in voluntary activation (KE -5.0%, EE -4.8%, P = 0.61) and of double twitch amplitude (KE -5%, EE -6%, P = 0.44). A long-distance XC race differently affected the neuromuscular function of lower and upper limbs muscles. Specifically, although the strength loss was greater for lower limbs, the capacity to produce force in short time was more affected in the upper limbs. Nevertheless, both KE and EE showed central and peripheral fatigue, suggesting that the origins of the strength impairments were multifactorial for the two muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Boccia
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,Motor Science Research Centre, School of Exercise & Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - D Dardanello
- Motor Science Research Centre, School of Exercise & Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - C Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - L Bortolan
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - C Cescon
- Rehabilitation Research Laboratory, Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Sciences University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Manno, Switzerland
| | - A Schneebeli
- Rehabilitation Research Laboratory, Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Sciences University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Manno, Switzerland
| | - G Vernillo
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - F Schena
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - A Rainoldi
- Motor Science Research Centre, School of Exercise & Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - B Pellegrini
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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26
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Andersson E, Björklund G, Holmberg HC, Ørtenblad N. Energy system contributions and determinants of performance in sprint cross-country skiing. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016; 27:385-398. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. Andersson
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - G. Björklund
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
| | - H-C. Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
- Swedish Olympic Committee; Stockholm Sweden
| | - N. Ørtenblad
- Department of Health Sciences; Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre; Mid Sweden University; Östersund Sweden
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics; SDU Muscle Research Cluster; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
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27
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Zoppirolli C, Pellegrini B, Bortolan L, Schena F. Effects of short-term fatigue on biomechanical and physiological aspects of double poling in high-level cross-country skiers. Hum Mov Sci 2016; 47:88-97. [PMID: 26904974 DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 01/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The study aim was to evaluate biomechanical and physiological alterations in double poling technique (DP) after a short-term fatiguing exercise. Eight high-level skiers performed a sub-maximal DP trial (20kmh(-1), 1°) before (PRE) and after (POST) a DP test to exhaustion while roller skiing on a treadmill. An integrated analysis of DP technique during PRE and POST included measurement of pole, joint, and centre of mass (COM) kinematics, poling forces, cycle timing, and metabolic parameters. Muscle fatigue in three upper-body muscles was assessed by calculating the Dimitrov' fatigue index (FInms5) of specific electromyographic segments. FInms5 tended to increase in the latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles (P=0.023 and P=0.030, respectively) across consecutive DP cycles, as did blood lactate concentration (P=0.001) and rating of perceived exertion (P=0.005). The changes indicated a state of fatigue during POST and coincided with the reduction in poling force exertion capacity (P=0.020). Pole, joint and COM kinematics did not differ between PRE and POST (P>0.050), whereas recovery phase and cycle times were shorter at POST (P<0.001 and P=0.001, respectively). Short-term fatigue led to a reduction in poling force exertion capacity and cycle time in high-level skiers, without altering body and pole kinematics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM (Research Center Sport Mountain & Health), Rovereto, Italy; Neurological and Movement Science Department, University of Verona, Italy.
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM (Research Center Sport Mountain & Health), Rovereto, Italy; Neurological and Movement Science Department, University of Verona, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Bortolan
- CeRiSM (Research Center Sport Mountain & Health), Rovereto, Italy; Neurological and Movement Science Department, University of Verona, Italy
| | - Federico Schena
- CeRiSM (Research Center Sport Mountain & Health), Rovereto, Italy; Neurological and Movement Science Department, University of Verona, Italy
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28
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Holmberg H. The elite cross‐country skier provides unique insights into human exercise physiology. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 25 Suppl 4:100-9. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H.‐C. Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre Department of Health Sciences Mid Sweden University Östersund Sweden
- Swedish Olympic Committee Stockholm Sweden
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29
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Marsland F, Mackintosh C, Anson J, Lyons K, Waddington G, Chapman DW. Using micro-sensor data to quantify macro kinematics of classical cross-country skiing during on-snow training. Sports Biomech 2015; 14:435-47. [PMID: 26573098 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2015.1084033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Micro-sensors were used to quantify macro kinematics of classical cross-country skiing techniques and measure cycle rates and cycle lengths during on-snow training. Data were collected from seven national level participants skiing at two submaximal intensities while wearing a micro-sensor unit (MinimaxX™). Algorithms were developed identifying double poling (DP), diagonal striding (DS), kick-double poling (KDP), tucking (Tuck), and turning (Turn). Technique duration (T-time), cycle rates, and cycle counts were compared to video-derived data to assess system accuracy. There was good reliability between micro-sensor and video calculated cycle rates for DP, DS, and KDP, with small mean differences (Mdiff% = -0.2 ± 3.2, -1.5 ± 2.2 and -1.4 ± 6.2) and trivial to small effect sizes (ES = 0.20, 0.30 and 0.13). Very strong correlations were observed for DP, DS, and KDP for T-time (r = 0.87-0.99) and cycle count (r = 0.87-0.99), while mean values were under-reported by the micro-sensor. Incorrect Turn detection was a major factor in technique cycle misclassification. Data presented highlight the potential of automated ski technique classification in cross-country skiing research. With further refinement, this approach will allow many applied questions associated with pacing, fatigue, technique selection and power output during training and competition to be answered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finn Marsland
- a UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise , University of Canberra , Canberra , Australia.,b Australian Institute of Sport , Canberra , Australia
| | | | - Judith Anson
- a UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise , University of Canberra , Canberra , Australia
| | - Keith Lyons
- a UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise , University of Canberra , Canberra , Australia
| | - Gordon Waddington
- a UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise , University of Canberra , Canberra , Australia
| | - Dale W Chapman
- a UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise , University of Canberra , Canberra , Australia.,b Australian Institute of Sport , Canberra , Australia
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30
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Moxnes JF, Moxnes ED. Mathematical simulation of energy expenditure and recovery during sprint cross-country skiing. Open Access J Sports Med 2014; 5:115-21. [PMID: 24966703 PMCID: PMC4050645 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s62020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose A cross-country sprint competition relies on maximal effort durations of 3–4 minutes.
Significant anaerobic energy contribution is expected. Anaerobic energy contribution has been
estimated in different sports to date from the accumulated O2 deficit. However, the
O2-deficit model can be questioned. We investigate anaerobic energy contribution by
applying other methods than the O2 deficit. Methods Theoretical model development. Results For sprint cross-country competitions, the anaerobic energy contribution was 20%–25%
independent of the employed mathematical model. Recovery times of a minimum 20 minutes were found to
be required after sprint races to be sure that the performance in subsequent heats was not
influenced. Conclusion The O2-deficit model gave anaerobic energy results in agreement with other models from
the literature. Recovery times of a minimum 20 minutes were found to be required after sprint races
to be sure that the performance in subsequent heats was not influenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Moxnes
- Protection and Societal Security Division, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Kjeller, Norway
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31
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Mikkola J, Laaksonen MS, Holmberg HC, Nummela A, Linnamo V. Changes in performance and poling kinetics during cross-country sprint skiing competition using the double-poling technique. Sports Biomech 2013; 12:355-64. [DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2013.784798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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32
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LOSNEGARD THOMAS, MYKLEBUST HÅVARD, HALLÉN JOSTEIN. Anaerobic Capacity as a Determinant of Performance in Sprint Skiing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2012; 44:673-81. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3182388684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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33
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Gerževič M, Strojnik V, Jarm T. Differences in Muscle Activation Between Submaximal and Maximal 6-Minute Rowing Tests. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25:2470-81. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181fb4111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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34
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Sandbakk O, Ettema G, Leirdal S, Holmberg HC. Gender differences in the physiological responses and kinematic behaviour of elite sprint cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 112:1087-94. [PMID: 21748369 PMCID: PMC3276766 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-2063-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2011] [Accepted: 06/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Gender differences in performance by elite endurance athletes, including runners, track cyclists and speed skaters, have been shown to be approximately 12%. The present study was designed to examine gender differences in physiological responses and kinematics associated with sprint cross-country skiing. Eight male and eight female elite sprint cross-country skiers, matched for performance, carried out a submaximal test, a test of maximal aerobic capacity (VO(2max)) and a shorter test of maximal treadmill speed (V (max)) during treadmill roller skiing utilizing the G3 skating technique. The men attained 17% higher speeds during both the VO(2max) and the V (max) tests (P < 0.05 in both cases), differences that were reduced to 9% upon normalization for fat-free body mass. Furthermore, the men exhibited 14 and 7% higher VO(2max) relative to total and fat-free body mass, respectively (P < 0.05 in both cases). The gross efficiency was similar for both gender groups. At the same absolute speed, men employed 11% longer cycles at lower rates, and at peak speed, 21% longer cycle lengths (P < 0.05 in all cases). The current study documents approximately 5% larger gender differences in performance and VO(2max) than those reported for comparable endurance sports. These differences reflect primarily the higher VO(2max) and lower percentage of body fat in men, since no gender differences in the ability to convert metabolic rate into work rate and speed were observed. With regards to kinematics, the gender difference in performance was explained by cycle length, not by cycle rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Human Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
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35
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Sandbakk Ø, Welde B, Holmberg HC. Endurance Training and Sprint Performance in Elite Junior Cross-Country Skiers. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25:1299-305. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181d82d11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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36
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Sandbakk O, Ettema G, Leirdal S, Jakobsen V, Holmberg HC. Analysis of a sprint ski race and associated laboratory determinants of world-class performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 111:947-57. [PMID: 21079989 PMCID: PMC3092926 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1719-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This investigation was designed to analyze the time-trial (STT) in an international cross-country skiing sprint skating competition for (1) overall STT performance and relative contributions of time spent in different sections of terrain, (2) work rate and kinematics on uphill terrain, and (3) relationships to physiological and kinematic parameters while treadmill roller ski skating. Total time and times in nine different sections of terrain by 12 world-class male sprint skiers were determined, along with work rate and kinematics for one specific uphill section. In addition, peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), gross efficiency (GE), peak speed (Vpeak), and kinematics in skating were measured. Times on the last two uphill and two final flat sections were correlated to overall STT performance (r = ~−0.80, P < 0.001). For the selected uphill section, speed was correlated to cycle length (r = −0.75, P < 0.01) and the estimated work rate was approximately 160% of peak aerobic power. VO2peak, GE, Vpeak, and peak cycle length were all correlated to STT performance (r = ~−0.85, P < 0.001). More specifically, VO2peak and GE were correlated to the last two uphill and two final flat section times, whereas Vpeak and peak cycle length were correlated to times in all uphill, flat, and curved sections except for the initial section (r = ~−0.80, P < 0.01). Performances on uphill and flat terrain in the latter part were the most significant determinants of overall STT performance. Peak oxygen uptake, efficiency, peak speed, and peak cycle length were strongly correlated to overall STT performance, as well as to performance in different sections of the race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Human Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
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37
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Bojsen-Møller J, Losnegard T, Kemppainen J, Viljanen T, Kalliokoski KK, Hallén J. Muscle use during double poling evaluated by positron emission tomography. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2010; 109:1895-903. [PMID: 20947710 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00671.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the complexity of movement in cross-country skiing (XCS), the muscle activation patterns are not well elucidated. Previous studies have applied surface electromyography (SEMG); however, recent gains in three-dimensional (3D) imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) have rendered an alternative approach to investigate muscle activation. The purpose of the present study was to examine muscle use during double poling (DP) at two work intensities by use of PET. Eight male subjects performed two 20-min DP bouts on separate days. Work intensity was ∼ 53 and 74% of peak oxygen uptake (Vo(2peak)), respectively. During exercise 188 ± 8 MBq of [(18)F]fluorodeoxyglucose ([(18)F]FDG) was injected, and subsequent to exercise a full-body PET scan was conducted. Regions of interest (ROI) were defined within 15 relevant muscles, and a glucose uptake index (GUI) was determined for all ROIs. The muscles that span the shoulder and elbow joints, the abdominal muscles, and hip flexors displayed the greatest GUI during DP. Glucose uptake did not increase significantly from low to high intensity in most upper body muscles; however, an increased GUI (P < 0.05) was seen for the knee flexor (27%) and extensor muscles (16%), and for abdominal muscles (21%). The present data confirm previous findings that muscles of the upper limb are the primary working muscles in DP. The present data further suggest that when exercise intensity increases, the muscles that span the lumbar spine, hip, and knee joints contribute increasingly. Finally, PET provides a promising alternative or supplement to existing methods to assess muscle activation in complex human movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Bojsen-Møller
- Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Norwegian Research Centre for Training and Performance, Post Box 4014, Ullevål Stadion, 0806 Oslo, Norway.
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Mikkola J, Laaksonen M, Holmberg HC, Vesterinen V, Nummela A. Determinants of a Simulated Cross-Country Skiing Sprint Competition using V2 Skating Technique on Roller Skis. J Strength Cond Res 2010; 24:920-8. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181cbaaaf] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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