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Layton M, Taylor J, Collins D. The measurement, tracking and development practices of English professional football academies. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:1655-1666. [PMID: 38126085 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2289758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Tracking and measuring elements of performance is a well-established feature of practice in football academies. Player characteristics are considered, tracked, and measured using a variety of methods, with curricula often devised based on perceived importance and data interpretation. Against this breadth, our aim was to investigate the policies and systems in place at category one and two English football academies. Specifically, our objectives were (a) to understand what factors academies believe are important in the development of their players, (b) explore what academies are tracking and how they measure performance, and (c) analyse the extent to which these factors are integrated into the player's curricula. A total of 15 participants with over 10 years' experience across 40 Talent Development (TD) environments were recruited to participate in semi-structured interviews. Using Reflexive Thematic Analysis (RTA), generated themes suggest that academies perceive a differential weighting between performance factors, with greatest importance placed on technical, tactical and psychological factors. A lack of clear measurement systematisation was often apparent. Finally, we identified methods of player curricula integration. We conclude by offering implications for academies to optimise integration of systems and processes that measure and track their players development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Layton
- Swansea City Football Club, Swansea
- Moray House School of Education and Sport, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
| | - Jamie Taylor
- Faculty of Science and Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
- Insight SFI Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Ireland
- Grey Matters Performance UK, Stratford Upon Avon, UK
| | - Dave Collins
- Moray House School of Education and Sport, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
- Faculty of Science and Health, School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
- Grey Matters Performance UK, Stratford Upon Avon, UK
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Applicability of Field Aerobic Fitness Tests in Soccer: Which One to Choose? J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2021; 6:jfmk6030069. [PMID: 34449680 PMCID: PMC8395732 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk6030069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A desire to make fitness testing cheaper and easier to conduct in a team-sport setting has led to the development of numerous field aerobic fitness tests. This has contributed to a growing confusion among strength and conditioning coaches about which one to use. The main aim of this narrative review was to examine the reliability, validity, sensitivity and usefulness of the commonly used field aerobic fitness tests and to provide practical guidelines for their use in soccer. The University of Montreal track test (UMTT) and Vam Eval test seem the best options for estimation of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) while the highest signal-to-noise ratio of the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (30-15IFT) suggests its superior sensitivity to track changes in fitness. The UMTT and 30-15IFT are the best solutions for prescription of long and short high-intensity interval training sessions, respectively. All field tests mostly present with marginal usefulness, but the smallest worthwhile change for UMTT or Vam Eval test, Yo-YoIRT2 and 30-15IFT are smaller than their stage increment making the improvement of only one stage in the test performance already worthwhile. Strength and conditioning coaches are advised to choose the test based on their specific purpose of testing.
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Prognostic Validity of Statistical Prediction Methods Used for Talent Identification in Youth Tennis Players Based on Motor Abilities. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11157051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: The search for talented young athletes is an important element of top-class sport. While performance profiles and suitable test tasks for talent identification have already been extensively investigated, there are few studies on statistical prediction methods for talent identification. Therefore, this long-term study examined the prognostic validity of four talent prediction methods. (2) Methods: Tennis players (N = 174; n♀ = 62 and n♂ = 112) at the age of eight years (U9) were examined using five physical fitness tests and four motor competence tests. Based on the test results, four predictions regarding the individual future performance were made for each participant using a linear recommendation score, a logistic regression, a discriminant analysis, and a neural network. These forecasts were then compared with the athletes’ achieved performance success at least four years later (U13‒U18). (3) Results: All four prediction methods showed a medium-to-high prognostic validity with respect to their forecasts. Their values of relative improvement over chance ranged from 0.447 (logistic regression) to 0.654 (tennis recommendation score). (4) Conclusions: However, the best results are only obtained by combining the non-linear method (neural network) with one of the linear methods. Nevertheless, 18.75% of later high-performance tennis players could not be predicted using any of the methods.
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Hohmann A, Siener M. Talent Identification in Youth Soccer: Prognosis of U17 Soccer Performance on the Basis of General Athleticism and Talent Promotion Interventions in Second-Grade Children. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:625645. [PMID: 34151260 PMCID: PMC8212928 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.625645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Several talent identification programs in elementary school have implemented motor diagnostics to introduce children to groups of sports, like game sports, or even to particular sports like soccer. However, as in most other sports, in youth soccer, the predictive value of such early testing is still unclear. This prospective study evaluated the midterm prognostic validity of generic motor performance tests. The sample consisted of male second-grade children, which had received a recommendation to participate in soccer. The talent screening campaign was a basic check comprising two anthropometric parameters, five physical fitness, and three motor competence diagnostics of the German Motor Test 6-18. The test data were collected from the participating elementary school classes of the years 2010 to 2014. The soccer competition performance of those children having completed the age of at least 15 years (n = 502) up to the end of the season 2019/2020 (2020, September 30) was recorded. This group of U17 players was then assigned individually to five different competition levels. The prognostic validity of the physical and physiological tests was determined using ANOVAs, odds ratios, and a regression path analysis. All diagnostic methods exhibited medium-to-high prognostic validity over the 8 year time span from the talent screening to the later soccer competitions in the adolescent age groups. For later success in soccer on the province level, the 6-min run (OR = 4.28), dynamic balance (OR = 4.04), and 20-m sprint (OR = 2.46), as well as the participation in the training center of the German Soccer Federation (OR = 5.67) and the diversity of club sport activities (OR = 3.56), were of particular importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Hohmann
- Department of Training and Movement Science, Institute of Sport Science, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Maximilian Siener
- Department of Training and Movement Science, Institute of Sport Science, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
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Höner O, Murr D, Larkin P, Schreiner R, Leyhr D. Nationwide Subjective and Objective Assessments of Potential Talent Predictors in Elite Youth Soccer: An Investigation of Prognostic Validity in a Prospective Study. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:638227. [PMID: 34124654 PMCID: PMC8193982 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.638227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have provided empirical evidence on the prognostic relevance of objective performance diagnostics in the soccer talent identification and development process. However, little is known about the prognostic validity of coaches' subjective evaluations of performance. This study evaluated objective and subjective assessments within a nationwide talent development program and addressed motor, perceptual skill, and personality-related performance factors. Male players (N = 13,869; Mage = 12.59 ± 1.07 years) from the age groups U12 to U15 of the German soccer talent development program participated in this study. Participants completed an objective motor diagnostic (sprint, agility, dribbling, ball control, juggling) and were subjectively rated by their coaches (kicking skills, endurance, individual tactical skills, psychosocial skills). All nine predictors were assessed with sufficient psychometric properties (α ≥ 0.72; except dribbling and ball control: α ≥ 0.53). Players' success three seasons later was operationalized by achieving professional youth academy level or not (success rate, 9%). Independent-samples t-tests analyzed univariate mean group comparisons between future selected and non-selected players. Logistic regression models examined the multivariate prognostic validity of all assessments by predicting success with subjective (model 1), objective (model 2), and both groups of predictors (model 3). Confirming the univariate prognostic validity, future selected outperformed non-selected players regarding all predictors (each p < 0.001, except for agility in U15: p < 0.01). Tactical skills, kicking skills, and sprint were of highest predictive value (d ≥ 0.61 in each age group). Multivariate results provided empirical evidence for the subjective (7% ≤ Nagelkerke's R2 ≤ 11%; each p < 0.001) and objective (8% ≤ Nagelkerke's R2 ≤ 13%; each p < 0.001) assessments' prognostic validity. However, model 3 revealed the best statistical explanatory power in each age group (0.15 ≤ Nagelkerke's R2 ≤ 0.20; p < 0.001). In this combined assessment model, sprint, tactical skills, and dribbling were found to be the most predictive variables. In conclusion, this study reinforces the call for multidimensional diagnostics integrating objective and subjective assessments. Future research is needed to address the demands for longitudinal analyses of subjective ratings, the integration of biological maturation, and empirical evidence for female soccer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Höner
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dennis Murr
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Paul Larkin
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Robert Schreiner
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Leyhr
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Methods Center, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Williams AM, Ford PR, Drust B. Talent identification and development in soccer since the millennium. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:1199-1210. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1766647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Mark Williams
- Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA
| | - Paul R. Ford
- School of Sport and Service Management, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
| | - Barry Drust
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Siener M, Hohmann A. Talent orientation: the impact of motor abilities on future success in table tennis. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-019-00594-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Roberts SJ, McRobert AP, Lewis CJ, Reeves MJ. Establishing consensus of position-specific predictors for elite youth soccer in England. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2019.1581369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon J. Roberts
- Sport, Exercise and Pedagogy Research Group, Faculty of Education, Health and Community, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Allistair P. McRobert
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Colin J. Lewis
- Sport, Exercise and Pedagogy Research Group, Faculty of Education, Health and Community, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Matthew J. Reeves
- School of Sport & Wellbeing, Faculty of Health & Wellbeing, University of Central Lancashire, UK
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Hohmann A, Siener M, He R. Prognostic validity of talent orientation in soccer. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-018-0549-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Psychological talent predictors in youth soccer: A systematic review of the prognostic relevance of psychomotor, perceptual-cognitive and personality-related factors. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0205337. [PMID: 30321221 PMCID: PMC6188900 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the multidimensional nature of soccer talent, recently there has been an increasing interest in psychological characteristics. The aim of this present research was to systematically review the predictive value of psychological talent predictors and provide better comprehension of the researchers’ methodological approaches and the empirical evidence for individual factors (i.e., psychomotor, perceptual-cognitive and personality-related). Results highlighted heterogeneous study designs (e.g., participants, measurement methods, statistical analyses) which may limit the comparability of studies’ findings. Analyzing the number of included studies, psychomotor (n = 10) and personality-related factors (n = 8) received more consideration within the literature than perceptual-cognitive factors (n = 4). In regard to empirical evidence, dribbling (0.47 ≤ d ≤ 1.24), ball control (0.57 ≤ d ≤ 1.28) and decision-making (d = 0.81) demonstrated good predictive values as well as the achievement motives hope for success (0.27 ≤ d ≤ 0.74) and fear of failure (0.21 ≤ d ≤ 0.30). In conclusion, there is growing acceptance of the need for more complex statistical analyses to predict future superior performance based on measures of current talent. New research addresses the necessity for large-scale studies that employ multidisciplinary test batteries to assess youth athletes at different age groups prospectively.
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Yiannaki C, Carling C, Collins D. Commentary: Long-term Practice with Domain-Specific Task Constraints Influences Perceptual Skills. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1214. [PMID: 30072932 PMCID: PMC6058214 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Yiannaki
- Centre for Research in Sports Performance, Myerscough College, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher Carling
- School of Sport and Wellbeing, Institute of Coaching and Performance, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Dave Collins
- School of Sport and Wellbeing, Institute of Coaching and Performance, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
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12
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Svensson K, Alricsson M, Olausson M, Werner S. Physical performance tests - a relationship of risk factors for muscle injuries in elite level male football players. J Exerc Rehabil 2018; 14:282-288. [PMID: 29740564 PMCID: PMC5931166 DOI: 10.12965/jer.1836028.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether there is a relationship between the outcome of preseason physical performance tests and the risk of sustaining lower extremity muscle injuries within the same season, in male football players at elite level. This is a cohort study of a male football team (63 players) from the first league in Swe-den. The football players are prospectively followed, in terms of muscle injuries of the lower extremity during five seasons between 2010 and 2014. All muscle injuries were evaluated and diagnosed with ultraso-nography. The following physical performance tests were included: squats, chin-ups, YoYo intermittent recovery level 2, counter movement jump, squat jump, standing long jump, sprint, one leg squat test, and a functional movement screen. A total of 86 muscle injuries occurred during the study period. No significant correlation was found between the results of the physical performance tests and muscle injuries of the lower extremity. None of the evaluated tests predicted the risk of sus-taining muscle injuries of the lower extremity. We conclude that muscle injury risk factors are more complex than solely related to the results of the preseason physical performance tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjell Svensson
- Stockholm Sports Trauma Research Centre, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marie Alricsson
- Department of Sports Science, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Marcus Olausson
- Stockholm Sports Trauma Research Centre, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Suzanne Werner
- Stockholm Sports Trauma Research Centre, Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Murr D, Raabe J, Höner O. The prognostic value of physiological and physical characteristics in youth soccer: A systematic review. Eur J Sport Sci 2017; 18:62-74. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2017.1386719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Murr
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Johannes Raabe
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Oliver Höner
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Höner O, Leyhr D, Kelava A. The influence of speed abilities and technical skills in early adolescence on adult success in soccer: A long-term prospective analysis using ANOVA and SEM approaches. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182211. [PMID: 28806410 PMCID: PMC5555567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Several talent development programs in youth soccer have implemented motor diagnostics measuring performance factors. However, the predictive value of such tests for adult success is a controversial topic in talent research. This prospective cohort study evaluated the long-term predictive value of 1) motor tests and 2) players’ speed abilities (SA) and technical skills (TS) in early adolescence. The sample consisted of 14,178 U12 players from the German talent development program. Five tests (sprint, agility, dribbling, ball control, shooting) were conducted and players’ height, weight as well as relative age were assessed at nationwide diagnostics between 2004 and 2006. In the 2014/15 season, the players were then categorized as professional (n = 89), semi-professional (n = 913), or non-professional players (n = 13,176), indicating their adult performance level (APL). The motor tests’ prognostic relevance was determined using ANOVAs. Players’ future success was predicted by a logistic regression threshold model. This structural equation model comprised a measurement model with the motor tests and two correlated latent factors, SA and TS, with simultaneous consideration for the manifest covariates height, weight and relative age. Each motor predictor and anthropometric characteristic discriminated significantly between the APL (p < .001; η2 ≤ .02). The threshold model significantly predicted the APL (R2 = 24.8%), and in early adolescence the factor TS (p < .001) seems to have a stronger effect on adult performance than SA (p < .05). Both approaches (ANOVA, SEM) verified the diagnostics’ predictive validity over a long-term period (≈ 9 years). However, because of the limited effect sizes, the motor tests’ prognostic relevance remains ambiguous. A challenge for future research lies in the integration of different (e.g., person-oriented or multilevel) multivariate approaches that expand beyond the “traditional” topic of single tests’ predictive validity and toward more theoretically founded issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Höner
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Daniel Leyhr
- Institute of Sports Science, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Augustin Kelava
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
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Höner O, Votteler A. Prognostic relevance of motor talent predictors in early adolescence: A group- and individual-based evaluation considering different levels of achievement in youth football. J Sports Sci 2016; 34:2269-2278. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1177658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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16
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Myburgh GK, Cumming SP, Coelho E Silva M, Cooke K, Malina RM. Growth and maturity status of elite British junior tennis players. J Sports Sci 2016; 34:1957-64. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1149213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Verburgh L, Scherder EJA, van Lange PAM, Oosterlaan J. The key to success in elite athletes? Explicit and implicit motor learning in youth elite and non-elite soccer players. J Sports Sci 2016; 34:1782-90. [PMID: 26788666 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1137344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In sports, fast and accurate execution of movements is required. It has been shown that implicitly learned movements might be less vulnerable than explicitly learned movements to stressful and fast changing circumstances that exist at the elite sports level. The present study provides insight in explicit and implicit motor learning in youth soccer players with different expertise levels. Twenty-seven youth elite soccer players and 25 non-elite soccer players (aged 10-12) performed a serial reaction time task (SRTT). In the SRTT, one of the sequences must be learned explicitly, the other was implicitly learned. No main effect of group was found for implicit and explicit learning on mean reaction time (MRT) and accuracy. However, for MRT, an interaction was found between learning condition, learning phase and group. Analyses showed no group effects for the explicit learning condition, but youth elite soccer players showed better learning in the implicit learning condition. In particular, during implicit motor learning youth elite soccer showed faster MRTs in the early learning phase and earlier reached asymptote performance in terms of MRT. Present findings may be important for sports because children with superior implicit learning abilities in early learning phases may be able to learn more (durable) motor skills in a shorter time period as compared to other children.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Verburgh
- a Section of Clinical Neuropsychology , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - E J A Scherder
- a Section of Clinical Neuropsychology , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - P A M van Lange
- b Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - J Oosterlaan
- a Section of Clinical Neuropsychology , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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