Self-controlled learning benefits: exploring contributions of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation via path analysis

OPTIMAL theory's claims about motivation lack evidence in the motor learning literature

Motivation is commonly recognized by researchers and practitioners as a key factor for motor learning. The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016) claims that practice conditions that enhance learners' expectancies for future successful outcomes or that are autonomy supportive are motivating, thus leading to better learning. To examine the current evidence of the association between motivation and motor learning, we searched the literature for studies that manipulated expectancies and/or autonomy support. Specifically, our goals were to assess whether these manipulations resulted in group differences in motivation and, if so, whether increased motivation was associated with learning advantages. Results showed that out of 166 experiments, only 21% (n = 35) included at least one measure of motivation, even though this is the main factor proposed by OPTIMAL theory to explain the learning benefits of these manipulations. Among those, only 23% (n = 8) found group-level effects on motivation, suggesting that these manipulations might not be as motivating as expected. Of the eight experiments that found a group-level effect on motivation, five also observed learning benefits, offering limited evidence that when practice conditions increase motivation, learning is more likely to occur. Overall, the small number of studies assessing motivation precludes any reliable conclusions on the association between motivation and motor learning from being drawn. Together, our results question whether manipulations implemented in the research lines supporting OPTIMAL theory are indeed motivating and highlight the lack of sufficient evidence in these literatures to support that increased motivation benefits motor learning.

Self-Controlled Video Feedback Facilitates the Learning of Tactical Skills in Tennis

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effect of self-controlled video feedback on the learning of tactical motor skills in tennis, and additionally, whether this was affected by learners' self-efficacy and self-regulative skills. Method: Twenty-three intermediately skilled tennis players were assigned to either a self-controlled group that was provided video feedback on request or a yoked group that received an identical, externally controlled video feedback schedule. In three training sessions participants practiced serve and volley play. Video feedback with attentional cueing and transitional statements that focused solely on individual tactical gameplay was provided by a licensed tennis coach. Individual tactical performance was measured with a custom designed Tactical Tennis Tool (TTT) in a pretest, posttest and in a one-week retention test. Before each test self-efficacy was measured, and a questionnaire was administered to measure self-regulative skills. Results: Analyses revealed significantly larger improvements in tactical performance relative to the pretest for the self-controlled group than for the yoked group in both the posttest and the one-week retention test. No differences were found in self-efficacy. Finally, the improvements in tactical performance were not predicted by self-efficacy and/or self-regulative skills. Conclusion: The advantage of self-controlled video feedback extends to the learning of a complex tactical task in tennis. Future research should verify the observed benefits of a self-controlled learning environment in comparison to a coach-controlled learning environment.

Effects of Different Observational Angles in Learner-Chosen Video Self-Modeling on Task Acquisition and Retention

This study aimed to examine the influence of different observational angles in video self-modeling on task acquisition and retention. We randomly assigned 42 Japanese university students to three camera-angle groups, i.e., a front-angle, a rear-angle, and a control group. The participants performed a 3 × 6 × 3 cup-stacking task with three sequential laps. The front- and rear-angle groups viewed video self-modeling created from previously self-chosen videos. The retention phase was conducted 1 week after the acquisition phase. The rear-angle group demonstrated the fastest movement times in the acquisition phase. Our findings indicate that viewing learner-chosen video self-modeling from a rear angle enhances motor skill acquisition but does not contribute to motor skill learning.

Functional Outcomes of Motor Learning Interventions in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries

Anterior cruciate ligament injury is one of the pathologies that affect the daily and professional life of the majority of athletes. When the treatment options are examined, there are two options surgical treatment and conservative treatment. Rehabilitation is essential in both cases, with or without surgery. Especially for returning to sports, long-term rehabilitation after surgery has become essential. While many different exercise methods have been tried in the prevention of anterior cruciate ligament injury and rehabilitation after reconstructive surgery, many have focused on strength training. The abnormal movement pattern that occurs with the somatosensory loss seen after anterior cruciate ligament injury results in a functional loss in the injured extremity and the contralateral extremity in the long term. Considering the incidence of injury, studies to establish the normal movement pattern and restore motor control are very important. For this reason, motor learning-based interventions that support neuroplasticity are of great interest today. This review aims to examine the functional results of current motor learning-based interventions in anterior cruciate ligament rehabilitation in line with the literature.

The recommendation for learners to be provided with control over their feedback schedule is questioned in a self-controlled learning paradigm

Evidence that self-controlled feedback schedules are more effective for motor learning than yoked or predetermined schedules has been used to forward the recommendation that practitioners should provide choice to learners over when they would like to receive feedback. This recommendation can be questioned because the typical comparison groups in such experimentation do not well represent the applied setting. Consequently, comparison groups that better map onto the applied setting are needed. To this end, three groups learned a golf putting task: (1) self-controlled, (2) traditional-yoked, and (3) a group who were led to believe their KR schedule was being controlled by a golf coach. Participants (N = 60) completed a pre-test, acquisition phase, and delayed post-tests (retention/transfer). No group differences during the post-tests for mean radial error, F(2, 54) = 2.71, p = .075, or bivariate variable error, F(2, 56) = 0.11, p = .896, were found. Thus, the typical self-controlled learning advantage was not observed. Given the failure to replicate self-controlled benefits, combined with the fact there is little research that has directly compared self-controlled feedback schedules to coach-controlled schedules, we argue more evidence is needed before advocating that learners be provided choice over their feedback schedule.

Effects of self-controlled knowledge of performance on motor learning and self-efficacy: A kinematic study

Study aim: To evaluate the effects of providing the learners with self-controlled knowledge of performance (KP) on motor learning and self-efficacy (SE) in a dart-throwing motor task.

Material and methods: The participants were thirty female university students who were divided into two groups including self-control and yoked groups. Participants performed five blocks of five trials in the acquisition phase, and retention and transfer tests of 10 trials one day later. Intra-limb coordination patterns (movement pattern), throwing scores, and SE (both movement pattern and movement outcome) were measured as dependent variables. Independent t test and one-way ANOVA with repeated measures were used as statistical tests.

Results: The self-controlled group performed significantly better than yoked group on movement pattern during the acquisition phase (F1,28 = 24.239, p = 0.001) and the retention test (t28 = –3.074, p = 0.007). However, there were no significant differences between groups in terms of throwing scores and SE during the acquisition, retention, and transfer phases (all p > 0.05).

Conclusion: Providing self-controlled KP can improve learning of movement pattern in the novices but do not necessary increase movement outcome or SE.

The effect of attentional instructions during modeling on gaze behavior and throwing accuracy in 7 to 10 year-old children

Research has shown the effectiveness of attentional instructions and observation on the performance and learning in children. However, there is little research on the effects of instruction that manipulates attentional focus during observation. The purpose of the study was to investigate performance following instructions that directed an individual to focus internally or externally during the viewing of a model. Eye tracking was also used to investigate the visual search strategy under different instructional groups. 24 children between the ages of 7 and 10 years were randomly divided into an internal (IFM) or external (EFM) modeling group. Children performed a 10-trial pre-test to measure throwing accuracy and quiet eye duration (QED). Following pre-test, children observed a model performing the correct overarm throw 10 times while eye movement was recorded. They then performed a 10-trial post-test. Results revealed that both groups improved accuracy from pre-test to post-test (p < .001) and increased QED from pre- to post-test (p < .001). It was also observed that EFM had greater accuracy and (p = .01) and longer QED (p < .001) than IFM during post-testing. Evidence was also observed for adherence to the attentional focus strategy as EFM and IFM looked more frequently at the specific cue provided (p < .001). Directing visual attention to the movement effects while observing a model significantly benefits motor performance and learning in children. Changing the focus of instruction to an external focus improved both throwing accuracy and increased QED.

Revisiting the Applied Model for the Use of Observation: A Review of Articles Spanning 2011-2018

Purpose: To provide a review of current articles that have used observation interventions to enhance motor skill acquisition or performance of applied tasks, and to situate the research within the Applied Model for the Use of Observation (AMUO) with the goal of forming a basis for evidence-based guidelines for practitioners. Method: Key words (e.g., observation/modeling) were searched in varied data bases (e.g., Google Scholar/PubMed), along with a citation search of the relevant AMUO article, to generate a pool of articles for possible review. Selection criteria included publication between 2011 and 2018, and that the research focus was on the effects of an observation intervention on the acquisition or performance of an applied motor task. Results: Forty-eight articles were reviewed, with 21 of these targeting the basic question of whether observation is effective, and the remaining pertaining to the What, When, Who, and How features of the AMUO. The effectiveness of observation interventions was not only affirmed, but also extended to a wider scope of populations and settings. Greater insight into the necessary information with respect to the demonstration (what) and whether it should be before, after, or during physical practice (when) was obtained. As well, advantages of combining model types (who) and providing control to the learner (how) were reported. Conclusions: While more clarity was brought to certain features of the AMUO that could be used to provide evidence-based guidelines, more research is needed to fully inform practitioners for the effective use of observation interventions.

Knowledge of Results do not Affect Self-Efficacy and Skill Acquisition on an Anticipatory Timing Task

The literature provides that self-efficacy increases if individuals receive more information of their success during practice with a consequent increase in learning outcomes. The objective of this study was to test the effects of different knowledge of results (KR) frequencies on self-efficacy and motor learning. Two groups with different KR frequencies performed an anticipatory timing task on two consecutive days. To measure self-efficacy, a questionnaire on participant's efficacy was applied at different times. Both groups increased self-efficacy during practice, but we found no evidence of the effect of performance on self-efficacy and no group and self-efficacy effect on retention. These findings demonstrate that different KR frequencies do not affect the self-efficacy and learning of an anticipatory timing task.

Self-controlled practice and nudging during structural learning of a novel control interface

Self-controlled practice schedules have been shown to enhance motor learning in several contexts, but their effectiveness in structural learning tasks, where the goal is to eventually learn an underlying structure or rule, is not well known. Here we examined the use of self-controlled practice in a novel control interface requiring structural learning. In addition, we examined the effect of ‘nudging’–i.e., whether altering task difficulty could influence self-selected strategies, and hence facilitate learning. Participants wore four inertial measurement units (IMUs) on their upper body and the goal was to use motions of the upper body to move a screen cursor to different targets presented on the screen. The structure in this task that had to be learned was based on the fact that the signals from the IMUs were linearly mapped to the x- and y- position of the cursor. Participants (N = 62) were split into 3 groups (random, self-selected, nudge) based on whether they had control over the sequence in which they could practice the targets. To test whether participants learned the underlying structure, participants were tested both on the trained targets, as well as novel targets that were not practiced during training. Results showed that during training, the self-selected group showed shorter movement times relative to the random group, and both self-selected and nudge groups adopted a strategy of tending to repeat targets. However, in the test phase, we found no significant differences in task performance between groups, indicating that structural learning was not reliably affected by the type of practice. In addition, nudging participants by adjusting task difficulty did not show any significant benefits to overall learning. These results suggest that although self-controlled practice influenced practice structure and facilitated learning, it did not provide any additional benefits relative to practicing on a random schedule in this task.

Persistent handwriting problems are hard to predict: A longitudinal study of the development of handwriting in primary school

BACKGROUND

After one year of tuition, up to a third of primary school children show insufficient handwriting. It is unclear whether this early insufficient handwriting predicts persistent handwriting problems, because there is a dearth of studies that followed developmental trajectories longitudinally.

AIMS

To describe handwriting development in primary school children longitudinally and to determine predictive positive value and sensitivity of early handwriting assessment. To analyse whether underlying abilities helps early identification of persistent handwriting problems.

METHODS

173 primary school children were yearly assessed for four years using the Concise Assessment Scale for Children's Handwriting and the Beery Buktenica developmental test of visual-motor integration.

RESULTS

Both quality and speed of handwriting increased with years of tuition, with a pronounced increase in quality between two and three years of writing tuition. Sensitivity and positive predictive value were low. The only significant predictor of handwriting quality was handwriting quality in the previous year. For handwriting speed, no significant developmental model was revealed.

CONCLUSIONS

Quality and speed of handwriting after one year of tuition is not sufficiently predictive for distinguishing between transient insufficient handwriting and persistent handwriting problems three years later. Practitioners should hold back when referring children for remedial teaching.

Examining the impact of error estimation on the effects of self-controlled feedback

Two experiments were conducted that examined the motivational and informational perspectives concerning learning advantages from self-controlled practice. Three groups were tasked with learning a novel skill; self-controlled (SC), yoked traditional (YT), and yoked with error estimation required during the acquisition phase (YE). Results from the delayed learning measures showed the YE group performed better than the SC and YT groups, for Expt. 1. A similar pattern emerged for Expt. 2, albeit, this was not significant. While there were no motivation differences across the groups in either experiment, a strong correlation in Expt. 2 was shown between error estimation capabilities, which were best for the YE group, and learning. These combined results suggest that informational processes contribute more to the self-controlled feedback learning advantage, relative to motivational contributions.

Self-Control of Haptic Assistance for Motor Learning: Influences of Frequency and Opinion of Utility

Studies of self-controlled practice have shown benefits when learners controlled feedback schedule, use of assistive devices and task difficulty, with benefits attributed to information processing and motivational advantages of self-control. Although haptic assistance serves as feedback, aids task performance and modifies task difficulty, researchers have yet to explore whether self-control over haptic assistance could be beneficial for learning. We explored whether self-control of haptic assistance would be beneficial for learning a tracing task. Self-controlled participants selected practice blocks on which they would receive haptic assistance, while participants in a yoked group received haptic assistance on blocks determined by a matched self-controlled participant. We inferred learning from performance on retention tests without haptic assistance. From qualitative analysis of open-ended questions related to rationales for/experiences of the haptic assistance that was chosen/provided, themes emerged regarding participants' views of the utility of haptic assistance for performance and learning. Results showed that learning was directly impacted by the frequency of haptic assistance for self-controlled participants only and view of haptic assistance. Furthermore, self-controlled participants' views were significantly associated with their requested haptic assistance frequency. We discuss these findings as further support for the beneficial role of self-controlled practice for motor learning.