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Liu MM, Yu CW, Meng QH, Hao XF, Chen ZL, He M. Analysis of fluid force and flow fields during gliding in swimming using smoothed particle hydrodynamics method. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1355617. [PMID: 38846802 PMCID: PMC11153747 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1355617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Gliding is a crucial phase in swimming, yet the understanding of fluid force and flow fields during gliding remains incomplete. This study analyzes gliding through Computational Fluid Dynamics simulations. Specifically, a numerical model based on the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method for flow-object interactions is established. Fluid motion is governed by continuity, Navier-Stokes, state, and displacement equations. Modified dynamic boundary particles are used to implement solid boundaries, and steady and uniform flows are generated with inflow and outflow conditions. The reliability of the SPH model is validated by replicating a documented laboratory experiment on a circular cylinder advancing steadily beneath a free surface. Reasonable agreement is observed between the numerical and experimental drag force and lift force. After the validation, the SPH model is employed to analyze the passive drag, vertical force, and pitching moment acting on a streamlined gliding 2D swimmer model as well as the surrounding velocity and vorticity fields, spanning gliding velocities from 1 m/s to 2.5 m/s, submergence depths from 0.2 m to 1 m, and attack angles from -10° to 10°. The results indicate that with the increasing gliding velocity, passive drag and pitching moment increase whereas vertical force decreases. The wake flow and free surface demonstrate signs of instability. Conversely, as the submergence depth increases, there is a decrease in passive drag and pitching moment, accompanied by an increase in vertical force. The undulation of the free surface and its interference in flow fields diminish. With the increase in the attack angle, passive drag and vertical force decrease whereas pitching moment increases, along with the alteration in wake direction and the increasing complexity of the free surface. These outcomes offer valuable insights into gliding dynamics, furnishing swimmers with a scientific basis for selecting appropriate submergence depth and attack angle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Meng Liu
- Department of Physical Education, Dongshin University, Naju, Republic of Korea
| | - Chuan-Wen Yu
- School of Physical Education and Health, Heze University, Heze, China
| | - Qing-Hua Meng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Sports Physiology and Sports Medicine, Tianjin University of Sport, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiao-Fan Hao
- Department of Physical Education, Dongshin University, Naju, Republic of Korea
| | - Zhi-Long Chen
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Port and Ocean Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Ming He
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Port and Ocean Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
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Cortesi M, Gatta G, Carmigniani R, Zamparo P. Estimating Active Drag Based on Full and Semi-Tethered Swimming Tests. J Sports Sci Med 2024; 23:17-24. [PMID: 38455441 PMCID: PMC10915618 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2024.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
During full tethered swimming no hydrodynamic resistance is generated (since v = 0) and all the swimmer's propulsive force (FP) is utilized to exert force on the tether (FT = FP). During semi-tethered swimming FP can be made useful to one of two ends: exerting force on the tether (FST) or overcoming drag in the water (active drag: Da). At constant stroke rate, the mean propulsive force (FP) is constant and the quantity FP - FST (the "residual thrust") corresponds to Da. In this study we explored the possibility to estimate Da based on this method ("residual thrust method") and we compared these values with passive drag values (Dp) and with values of active drag estimated by means of the "planimetric method". Based on data obtained from resisted swimming (full and semi-tethered tests at 100% and 35, 50, 60, 75, 85% of the individual FT), active drag was calculated as: DaST = kaST.vST2 = FP - FST ("residual thrust method"). Passive drag (Dp) was calculated based on data obtained from passive towing tests and active drag ("planimetric method") was estimated as: DaPL = Dp.1.5. Speed-specific drag (k = D/v2) in passive conditions (kp) was )25 kg.m-1 and in active conditions (ka) )38 kg.m-1 (with either method); thus, DaST > Dp and DaST > DaPL. In human swimming active drag is, thus, about 1.5 times larger than passive drag. These experiments can be conducted in an ecological setting (in the swimming pool) by using basic instrumentation and a simple set of calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cortesi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Italy
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Sacilotto G, Sanders R, Gonjo T, Marinho D, Mason B, Naemi R, Vilas-Boas JP, Papic C. "Selecting the right tool for the job" a narrative overview of experimental methods used to measure or estimate active and passive drag in competitive swimming. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:1572-1589. [PMID: 37081773 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2023.2197858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Free-swimming performance depends strongly on the ability to develop propulsive force and minimise resistive drag. Therefore, estimating resistive drag (passive or active) may be important to understand how free-swimming performance can be improved. The purpose of this narrative overview was to describe and discuss experimental methods of measuring or estimating active and passive drag relevant to competitive swimming. Studies were identified using a mixed-model approach comprising a search of SCOPUS and Web of Science data bases, follow-up of relevant studies cited in manuscripts from the primary search, and additional studies identified by the co-authors based on their specific areas of fluid dynamics expertise. The utility and limitations of active and passive drag methods were critically discussed with reference to primary research domains in this field, 'swimmer morphology' and 'technique analysis'. This overview and the subsequent discussions provide implications for researchers when selecting an appropriate method to measure resistive forces (active or passive) relevant to improving performance in free-swimming.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Rehabilitation and Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
| | - Daniel Marinho
- Research Center in Sports Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | | | - Roozbeh Naemi
- School of Life Sciences and Education, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK
| | | | - Christopher Papic
- Exercise and Sports Science, School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, Australia
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Reliability and Validity of a Flume-Based Maximal Oxygen Uptake Swimming Test. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:sports11020042. [PMID: 36828327 PMCID: PMC9965664 DOI: 10.3390/sports11020042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
A mode-specific swimming protocol to assess maximal aerobic uptake (VO2maxsw) is vital to accurately evaluate swimming performance. A need exists for reliable and valid swimming protocols that assess VO2maxsw in a flume environment. The purpose was to assess: (a) reliability and (b) "performance" validity of a VO2maxsw flume protocol using the 457-m freestyle pool performance swim (PS) test as the criterion. Nineteen males (n = 9) and females (n = 10) (age, 28.5 ± 8.3 years.; height, 174.7 ± 8.2 cm; mass, 72.9 ± 12.5 kg; %body fat, 21.4 ± 5.9) performed two flume VO2maxsw tests (VO2maxswA and VO2maxswB) and one PS test [457 m (469.4 ± 94.7 s)]. For test-retest reliability (Trials A vs. B), moderately strong relationships were established for VO2maxsw (mL·kg-1·min-1)(r= 0.628, p = 0.002), O2pulse (mL O2·beat-1)(r = 0.502, p = 0.014), VEmax (L·min-1) (r = 0.671, p = 0.001), final test time (sec) (0.608, p = 0.004), and immediate post-test blood lactate (IPE (BLa)) (0.716, p = 0.001). For performance validity, moderately strong relationships (p < 0.05) were found between VO2maxswA (r =-0.648, p = 0.005), O2pulse (r= -0.623, p = 0.008), VEmax (r = -0.509 p = 0.037), and 457-m swim times. The swimming flume protocol examined is a reliable and valid assessment of VO2maxsw., and offers an alternative for military, open water, or those seeking complementary forms of training to improve swimming performance.
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Strzała M, Stanula A, Krężałek P, Sokołowski K, Wądrzyk Ł, Maciejczyk M, Karpiński J, Rejdych W, Wilk R, Sadowski W. Correlations between Crawl Kinematics and Speed with Morphologic, Functional, and Anaerobic Parameters in Competitive Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19084595. [PMID: 35457464 PMCID: PMC9031581 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between a unique complex of predictors and 100 m front crawl race kinematics and swimming speed. In 28 male competitive swimmers (age: 19.6 ± 2.59 years), the following groups of predictors were assessed: (a) the morphologic, (b) the functional upper limb range of motion, and (c) the anaerobic indices of arm-cranking and a series of countermovement jumps. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated to distinguish the predictors and the swimming results. The main finding was that the indices of the power (arm-cranking) and the work (countermovement jump) generated in the anaerobic tests showed a significant and higher correlation with stroke length and stroke index than total body length, upper limb range of motion, or hand and forearm surface area. These results were obtained in accordance with the high swimming economy index relation to clear surface swimming speed. This study reveals that the strength generated by the limbs may represent a predictor of swimming kinematics in a 100 m front crawl performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Strzała
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland; (M.S.); (K.S.)
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-207-53-33
| | - Piotr Krężałek
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Motor Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Kamil Sokołowski
- Department of Water Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland; (M.S.); (K.S.)
| | - Łukasz Wądrzyk
- Department of Biomechanics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Marcin Maciejczyk
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Jakub Karpiński
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
| | - Wojciech Rejdych
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
| | - Robert Wilk
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
| | - Wojciech Sadowski
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (J.K.); (W.R.); (R.W.); (W.S.)
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Hogarth L, Oh YT, Osborough C, Osborough C, Formosa D, Hunter A, Alcock A, Burkett B, Payton C. Passive drag in Para swimmers with physical impairments: Implications for evidence-based classification in Para swimming. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 31:1932-1940. [PMID: 34189782 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The inherent hydrodynamic resistance force, or passive drag, of a swimmer directly influences how they move through the water. For swimmers with physical impairments, the strength of association between passive drag and swimming performance is unknown. Knowledge on this factor could improve the World Para Swimming classification process. This study established the relationship between passive drag and 100 m freestyle race performance in Para swimmers with physical impairments. Using a cross-sectional study design, an electrical-mechanical towing device was used to measure passive drag force in 132 international-level Para swimmers. There was a strong, negative correlation between normalized passive drag force and 100 m freestyle race speed in the combined participant cohort (ρ = -0.77, p < 0.001). Type of physical impairment was found to affect the relationship between passive drag and 100 m freestyle race speed when included in linear regression (R2 = 0.65, χ2 = 11.5, p = 0.025). These findings contribute to the body of evidence that passive drag can provide an objective assessment of activity limitation in Para swimmers with physical impairments. The effect of physical impairment type on the relationship between passive drag and swimming performance should be accounted for in Para swimming classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Hogarth
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia
| | - Yim-Taek Oh
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Casey Osborough
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Conor Osborough
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Danielle Formosa
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia
| | - Adam Hunter
- Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | | | - Brendan Burkett
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia.,High Performance Sport, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia
| | - Carl Payton
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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Gliding performance is affected by cranial movement of abdominal organs. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21430. [PMID: 33293638 PMCID: PMC7722763 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78609-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Swimming is an extremely popular sport around the world. The streamlined body position is a crucial and foundational position for swimmers. Since the density of lungs is low, the center of buoyancy is always on the cranial side and the center of gravity is always on the caudal side. It has been reported that the greater the distance between the centers of buoyancy and gravity, the swimmer’s legs will sink more. This is disadvantageous to swimming performance. However, the way to reduce the distance between the centers of buoyancy and gravity is yet to be elucidated. Here we show that swimmers with high gliding performance exhibit different abdominal cavity shapes in the streamlined body position, which causes cranial movement of the abdominal organs. This movement can reduce the distance between the centers of buoyancy and gravity, prevent the legs from sinking, and have a positive effect on gliding performance.
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Passive Drag in Young Swimmers: Effects of Body Composition, Morphology and Gliding Position. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17062002. [PMID: 32197399 PMCID: PMC7142561 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17062002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The passive drag (Dp) during swimming is affected by the swimmer’s morphology, body density and body position. We evaluated the relative contribution of morphology, body composition, and body position adjustments in the prediction of a swimmer’s Dp. This observational study examined a sample of 60 competitive swimmers (31 male and 29 female) with a mean (±SD) age of 15.4 ± 3.1 years. The swimmer’s Dp was measured using an electro-mechanical towing device and the body composition was assessed using a bioelectrical impedance analyser. Body lengths and circumferences were measured in both the standing position and the simulated streamlined position. Partial correlation analysis with age as a control variable showed that Dp was largely correlated (p < 0.05) with body mass, biacromial- and bi-iliac-breadth, streamline chest circumference and breadth. Body mass, Body Mass Index, chest circumference and streamline chest circumference showed a significant and moderate to strong effect (η2 > 0.55) on Dp. Body mass was the best predictor of Dp explaining 69% of the variability. These results indicate that swimmers with lower Dp values were: (i) slimmer, with lower fat and fat-free mass, (ii) thinner, with lower shoulder breadth, chest circumference, and streamline trunk diameters (iii), shorter, with lower streamline height. These findings can be used for talent identification in swimming, with particular reference to the gliding performance.
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Zamparo P, Cortesi M, Gatta G. The energy cost of swimming and its determinants. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 120:41-66. [PMID: 31807901 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04270-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The energy expended to transport the body over a given distance (C, the energy cost) increases with speed both on land and in water. At any given speed, C is lower on land (e.g., running or cycling) than in water (e.g., swimming or kayaking) and this difference can be easily understood when one considers that energy should be expended (among the others) to overcome resistive forces since these, at any given speed, are far larger in water (hydrodynamic resistance, drag) than on land (aerodynamic resistance). Another reason for the differences in C between water and land locomotion is the lower capability to exert useful forces in water than on land (e.g., a lower propelling efficiency in the former case). These two parameters (drag and efficiency) not only can explain the differences in C between land and water locomotion but can also explain the differences in C within a given form of locomotion (swimming at the surface, which is the topic of this review): e.g., differences between strokes or between swimmers of different age, sex, and technical level. In this review, the determinants of C (drag and efficiency, as well as energy expenditure in its aerobic and anaerobic components) will, thus, be described and discussed. In aquatic locomotion it is difficult to obtain quantitative measures of drag and efficiency and only a comprehensive (biophysical) approach could allow to understand which estimates are "reasonable" and which are not. Examples of these calculations are also reported and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Via Felice Casorati 43, 37131, Verona, Italy.
| | - Matteo Cortesi
- Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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