Occurrence of aflatoxin M(1) in raw and market milk commercialized in Greece

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Cow, Goat, Buffalo, Camel, and Yak Milk in China in 2016

In this present study, 195 cow milk, 100 goat milk, 50 buffalo milk, 50 camel milk, and 50 yak milk samples were collected in China in May and October 2016. The presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. For all cow milk samples, 128 samples (65.7%) contained AFM1 in concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.191 µg/L, and 6 samples (3.1%) from Sichuan province in October were contaminated with AFM1 above 0.05 µg/L (EU limit). For all goat milk samples, 76.0% of samples contained AFM1 in concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.135 µg/L, and 9 samples (9.0%) from Shanxi province in October were contaminated with AFM1 above 0.05 µg/L. For all buffalo milk samples, 24 samples (48.0%) contained AFM1 in concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.089 µg/L, and 2 samples collected in October were contaminated with AFM1 above 0.05 µg/L. Furthermore, 28.0% of samples contained AFM1 in concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.007 µg/L in camel milk samples, and 18.0% of samples contained AFM1 in concentrations ranging from 0.005 to 0.007 µg/L in yak milk samples. Our survey study has expanded the current knowledge of the occurrence of AFM1 in milk from five dairy species in China, in particular the minor dairy species.

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in bovine milk and associated risk factors among dairy farms of Punjab, India

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination in milk and milk products may pose a major public health concern. The present cross-sectional study was aimed to estimate the prevalence of AFM1 in bovine milk across all districts of Punjab, India and to identify the associated animal and farm level risk factors. A total of 402 milk samples (266 cow milk and 136 buffalo milk) were analysed using commercial ELISA and representative samples were confirmed using HPLC-FLD. The results revealed that 56.2 and 13.4% of the milk samples exceeded the maximum levels of the European Union, i.e. 0.05 μg/l and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), i.e. 0.5 μg/l for AFM1 in milk, respectively. On analysis of species variation, buffalo milk (prevalence: 56.6%; mean concentration: 0.42±0.9 μg/l) was found to have higher AFM1 levels than cow milk (prevalence: 56.0%; mean concentration: 0.19±0.3 μg/l), with statistically significant difference between mean concentrations (P<0.01) and non-significant difference between AFM1 prevalence (P=0.91). Furthermore, milk from commercial dairy farms (prevalence: 64.7%; mean concentration: 0.34±0.65 μg/l) was found to be more contaminated than from household dairy establishments (prevalence: 47.8%; mean concentration: 0.19±0.65 μg/l). The risk factors ‘above average milk yield/day’ (odds ratio (OR): 2.4) and ‘poor animal hygiene’ (OR: 1.9) were identified at animal level, and ‘intensive dairy farming’ (OR: 3.1) and ‘animal feed without aflatoxin binder’ (OR: 4.7) as farm level risk factors for AFM1 excretion above maximum levels of European Union in milk. Among cow breeds, the milk from ‘non-descript’ breed (OR: 11.5) was found to be most contaminated with AFM1 and the least from Jersey breed (OR: 1.0). The present study highlighted the presence of AFM1 in milk samples; therefore, regular monitoring of AFM1 in milk is required so that high risk regions and associated risk factors can be addressed appropriately.

A Study of the Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk Supply Chain over a Seven-Year Period (2014-2020): Human Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization in the Population of Central Italy

Aflatoxin food contamination represents a rising global issue that will continue to increase due to climate change. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is of high concern for the whole dairy industry. In light of AFM1's harmful potential, a human health exposure assessment and risk characterization were performed for all age populations of central Italy with regard to milk and cheese consumption by means of the margin of exposure (MOE). In total, 16,934 cow and ewe's milk samples were collected from 2014 to 2020 and analyzed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) screening method, confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The average concentration of AFM1 in cow's milk ranged from 0.009 to 0.015 µg/kg, while in ewe's milk, the average concentration ranged from 0.009 to 0.013 µg/kg. The average amount of AFM1 exposure ranged from 0.00005 to 0.00195 g/kg bw/day, with the main contributor represented by drinking milk, followed by the consumption of soft cheeses. A high level of public health concern related to the youngest consumers has arisen from risk characterizations highlighting the need for constant monitoring of AFM1's occurrence in milk by inspection authorities, alongside regular updates with regard to exposure assessments.

Determination of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk Using an HPLC-FL Method in Comparison with Commercial ELISA Kits-Application in Raw Milk Samples from Various Regions of Greece

The highly toxic Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is most often detected in milk using an Enzyme-Linked-Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for screening purposes, while High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detector (HPLC-FL) is the reference method used for confirmation. The aim of the present study was the comparison between three commercially available ELISA kits and a newly developed HPLC-FL method for the determination of the AFM1 in milk samples. The developed HPLC-FL method was validated for the AFM1 and Aflatoxin M2 (AFM2), determining the accuracy, precision, linearity, decision limit, and detection capability with fairly good results. All three ELISA kits were also validated and showed equally good performance with high recovery rates. Moreover, the Limit Of Detection (LOD) and Limit Of Quantification (LOQ) values were found to be significantly lower than the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) (50 ng kg-1). After the evaluation of all three commercial kits, the ELISA kit with the optimum performance along with the HPLC method was used for the determination of AFM1 in raw cow's, goat's, and sheep's milk samples (396) obtained from producers in different regions of Greece. The evaluation of both methods showed that this ELISA kit could be considered as a faster and equally reliable alternative method to HPLC in routine analysis for the determination of AFM1 in milk.

Aflatoxin M1 detection by ELISA in raw and processed milk in Bangladesh

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Immunologically aflatoxin M1 was detected in raw and processed milk in Bangladesh.

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Aflatoxin M1 mean level was found to be highest in raw milk (699.07 ng/kg).

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EC and US regulations exceeded in 75 % and 43 % of contaminated samples, respectively.

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Aflatoxin M1 existence level in milk can be detrimental to human health.

An analysis was accomplished to get information regarding presence of highly toxic and carcinogenic aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in raw and processed samples of milk applying ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay). Investigation of a set of 100 samples (n=100) taken from different regional small-scale farms as well as grocery stores of Bangladesh containing three groups of milk including raw (n=50), pasteurized (n=25) and UHT (n=25), exhibited in total 53% AFM1 contamination where 70% contamination was found in raw milk ranging from 22.79−1489.28 ng/kg (mean value 699.07 ng/kg), 52% in pasteurized milk ranging from 18.11−672.18 ng/kg (mean value 99.77 ng/kg) and 20% in UHT milk ranging from 25.07−48.95 ng/kg (mean value 35.46 ng/kg). Among all the positive samples, 75% contaminated samples were above the European Communities prescribed limits (50 ng/kg) while having 25% samples still below this limit whereas 43% samples crossed the accepted limit of US regulations/Codex Alimentarius Commission regulations (500 ng/kg). Thus the findings of this study may lead to increase awareness regarding health impact of aflatoxin M1 and implementation of strict regulations by law enforcement bureaus of Bangladesh.

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk Marketed in Italy: Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization

The current study is based on the AFM1 contamination of milk determined from April 2013 to December 2018 in the framework of a self-control plan of six milk processing plants in Italy. These data - together with the consumption data of milk consumers - were evaluated and used for the calculation of the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), the Hazard Index (HI), and the fraction of hepatocarcinoma cases (HCC) due to AFM1 exposure in different population groups. Altogether a total of 31,702 milk samples were analyzed, representing 556,413 tons of milk, which is an outstanding amount compared to published studies. The results indicate the monthly fluctuation of AFM1 levels through a period of nearly 6 years. The EDI of AFM1 in different population groups was in the range of 0.025-0.328 ng kg-1 body weight (bw) per day, based on the average consumption levels and weighted mean contamination of the milk in the study period. Considering average consumptions, in the groups of infants and toddlers, the HI calculation resulted in 1.64 and 1.4, respectively, while for older age groups, it was <1. The estimated fractions of HCC incidences attributable to the AFM1 intakes were 0.005 and 0.004 cases per 100,000 individuals in the 0-0.9 and 1-2.9-year age groups, respectively, and below 0.004 cases in the other age categories. The monthly average AFM1 contamination of tested milk consignments ranged between 7.19 and 22.53 ng kg-1. Although the results of this extensive investigation showed a low risk of HCC, the variability of climatic conditions throughout years that influence AFB1 contamination of feed and consequently AFM1 contamination of milk justifies their continuous monitoring and update of the risk assessment.

Exposure Assessment and Risk Characterization of Aflatoxin M1 Intake through Consumption of Milk and Yoghurt by Student Population in Serbia and Greece

The objective of this research was to perform an exposure assessment of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) intake through the consumption of milk and yoghurt by the student population in Serbia and Greece. A food consumption survey of milk and yoghurt was performed during the first half of 2018 in the two countries with at least 500 interviewees (aged between 18 and 27 years) per country, covering their dietary habits and body weight based on one-day and seven-day recall methods. Values for the concentration of AFM1 were extracted from published research. Finally, a Monte Carlo analysis of 100,000 iterations was performed to estimate the intake of AFM1 from the consumption of the two dairy products. Results revealed that the estimated average exposure of students to AFM1 was in the range of 1.238⁻2.674 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 for Serbia, and 0.350⁻0.499 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 for Greece, depending on the dietary recall method employed. High estimations for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases/year/10⁵ individuals, depending on the prevalence of Hepatitis B virus surface antigen positive individuals (HBsAg+), were 0.0036⁻0.0047 and 0.0007⁻0.0009 for Serbia and Greece, respectively. Presented Margin of Exposure (MOE) and Hazard Index (HI) values indicate increased risk from exposure to AFM1, particularly in Serbia.

Aflatoxin M1 contamination in cow and buffalo milk samples from the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab provinces of Pakistan

A total of 178 milk samples (94 of buffalo and 84 of cow) were randomly taken from Punjab and the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan (n = 89 in each province) and analysed for the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) by HPLC-FLD. From Punjab about 46% of buffalo's and 49% of cow's milks were contaminated with AFM1 as compared with 52% and 51% for milk samples from NWFP, respectively. Overall, the mean AFM1 concentration was 0.046 µg kg(-1) with a maximum of 0.350 µg kg(-1). All samples complied with the Codex Alimentarius limit of 0.50 µg kg(-1) for AFM1 in milk, but 16.3% of samples exceeded the European Union maximum level of 0.05 µg kg(-1). Another set of 415 buffalo's and cow's milk samples (213 morning milks and 202 evening milks) were analysed. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) between mean AFM1 concentrations in milk during the morning (0.043 µg kg(-1)) and the evening (0.028 µg kg(-1)) lactation times.

Occurrence of aflatoxin M₁ in UHT milk and infant formula samples consumed in Burdur, Turkey

Aflatoxins are toxic fungal metabolites found in foods and feeds. Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁), a metabolite of the potent carcinogen aflatoxin B₁(AFB₁), occurs in milk from animals consuming feed contaminated with AFB1. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and levels of AFM₁ in ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk and infant formula samples consumed in Burdur City. During 2011, 41 samples of UHT milk and 33 samples of infant formula were randomly collected from different supermarkets and drug stores. The occurrence and contamination levels of AFM₁ in the samples were investigated using the competitive enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) method. AFM₁ was detected in 30 samples (73.2%) in concentrations ranging from 6.42 to 71.33 ng/L (mean level, 17.76 ng/L). Altogether, only three (7.3%) samples of UHT milk were contaminated at levels above the Turkish legal limit (50 ng/L). However, AFM₁ was not detected in all infant formula samples. It is concluded that despite the widespread occurrence of AFM₁ in UHT milk samples, the contamination levels were not serious for public health.

Survey of aflatoxin M₁ in cows' milk from free-grazing cows in Abeokuta, Nigeria

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk from 100 different herds of free-grazing cows in Abeokuta, Nigeria, was analysed by immunoaffinity column cleanup and HPLC with fluorescence detection. AFM1 was found in 75% of the samples, the toxin levels in positive samples ranged from 9.0 to 456.0 ng/l. The mean AFM1 level in positive samples was 108.15 ng/l, exceeding, for example, the European Union maximum level by a factor of two. These results indicated that there is an urgent need to more closely control the milk of free-grazing cows for AFM1 in order to protect the health of humans consuming milk and milk products.

Risk assessment scenarios of children's exposure to aflatoxin M1 residues in different milk types from the Greek market

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was determined in 196 milk samples (conventional, organic and kids milk) from the Greek market during November 2009 to June 2010. AFM1 content was analyzed using an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) commercial kit. Aflatoxin M1 was detected in 46.5% of the samples. 46.5% of the samples were found positive for AFM1. The most frequent range of detection was between 5 and 10 ng/l. Based on the EU regulation only 2 milk samples presented AFM1 levels higher than the maximum residue limits. Two different scenarios were used for the determination of hazard index: (a) scenario 1 using only positive (detected AFM1) samples and (b) scenario 2 when missing values where imputed with Limit of Detection (LOD) divided by 2. Significant statistical differences between different milk categories were presented only when the results were imputed with LOD/2 values. Exposure assessment scenarios were developed for ages 1, 3, 5, 7 and 12 and their respective estimated weights and daily milk consumption. Under the worst-case scenario all milk types presented a Hazard Index (HI) less than one. The highest HI values appear in the ages of 1-3.

A survey of aflatoxin M1 contamination in bulk milk samples from dairy bovine, ovine, and caprine herds in Iran

A total of 150 bovine (60), ovine (42), and caprine (48) bulk milk samples were analyzed using a commercially available competitive ELISA kit. Overall, AFM1 was found in 46.7 % of the analyzed samples by an average concentration of 40.3 ± 22.2 ng/L. The incidence rates of AFM1 contamination in bovine, ovine, and caprine bulk milk samples were 66.7, 31.0, and 35.4 %, respectively. The concentration of AFM1 in 37.5 % of AFM1-positive bovine milk samples and 5.9 % of AFM1-positive caprine milk samples were higher than 50 ng/L.

Aflatoxin species: their health effects and determination methods in different foodstuffs

Carcinogenic and mutagenic properties of aflatoxin species are known in literature. Their intake over a long time period might be health-dangerous for human even at trace levels. It is well known that different foodstuffs can be contaminated by aflatoxin species through growing and storage. Due to the serious health effects, sensitive determination of aflatoxin species in any matrices related with the human being is very crucial at trace levels. In literature, there are sensitive techniques to analyze the different samples for the contents of their aflatoxin species. Each technique has some advantages and disadvantages over the other techniques. This review aims to summarize the different health effects of aflatoxin species, development of analytical techniques and applications of developed techniques in a variety of matrices.

Assessment of aflatoxin M1 contamination in pasteurized and UHT milk marketed in central part of Iran

This study was conducted as a screening survey to determine the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in 225 commercial liquid milk samples composed of pasteurized milk (116 samples) and UHT milk (109 samples) obtained from popular markets in central part of Iran. The competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method was employed to determine level of the toxin in the samples. Aflatoxin M1 was detected in 151 (67.1%) samples, consisted of 83 (71.5%) pasteurized milk samples (mean: 52.8 ng/l; range: 5.8-528.5 ng/l) and 68 (62.3%) UHT milk samples (mean: 46.4 ng/l; range: 5.6-515.9 ng/l). Considering the US FDA and Iranian national standard limits for AFM1 in milk (500 ng/l), 2 samples (1.7%) of pasteurized and 3 samples (2.7%) of UHT milk had levels above the maximum tolerance limit. However, according to European Commission limit (50 ng/l), this figure increased to 31 (26.7%) and 19 (17.4%) samples for pasteurized and UHT milk, respectively. The results indicated that the contamination of the samples with AFM1 in such a level could be a serious public health problem at the moment. This paper represents the data of the first survey on the occurrence of AFM1 in commercial liquid milk marketed in central part of Iran.

Prevalence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and its potential liver cancer risk in Taiwan

Pasteurized milk may contain the liver carcinogen aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) if the cows that produce the milk ingest feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1. In this study, we collected 144 milk samples of three main brands in Taiwan twice a month over a 1-year period and purchased two samples each of eight domestic and imported brands of infant formula at two different times in 2005. Samples underwent solid-phase extraction, cleaning in immunoaffinity columns, and quantification by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We found autumn and winter levels of AFM1 to be higher than those in the spring and the summer. We also found higher concentrations of AFM1 in low-fat milk than in whole-fat milk. We were able to detect trace amounts of AFM1 (1.17 to 54.7 ng/liter) in all of our milk samples, but there was only one sample in which the level of AFM1 slightly exceeded the regulatory limit of the European Union (50 ng/liter). We were unable to detect AFM1 in any of the infant formulae. Using a World Health Organization method of evaluating risk of liver cancer, the group we found to be at greatest risk was 6- to 9-year-old girls (average, 12.2 additional cases per billion); the group with the lowest risk was men of 45 to 64 years of age (average, 3.45 additional cases per billion), the latter consuming less milk than all other groups. Consequently, the risk for liver cancer due to ingestion of milk contaminated with AFM1 was estimated to be low in Taiwan.

Detection of aflatoxin M1 concentrations in UHT milk consumed in Turkey markets by ELISA

In this study, ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) technique was used for detection of aflatoxin M1 in UHT milk sold in Bursa-TURKEY for consumption. A total of 50 samples of commercial UHT (Ultra High Temperature) whole milk were analyzed. Aflatoxin M1 residues were detected in all samples (100%) studied in different levels. The mean value was 101.2 +/- 53.8 ng L(-1). Although, 40 (80%) were below the limit, the remaining 10 (20%) were well above the limit permitted by European Community and Turkish Food Codex. Serious risks for public health exist from milk consumption. Therefore, milk has to be controlled periodically for AFM1 contamination. Also, dairy cow feeds should be stored in such a way that they do not become contaminated.

Detection of aflatoxin M1 in human breast milk and raw cow's milk in Istanbul, Turkey

This survey was undertaken to determine the extent of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination in human breast milk and raw cow's milk in Istanbul, Turkey. Samples of human and raw cow's milk were collected randomly and analyzed for AFM1 using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection in which the samples were cleaned up with immunoaffinity columns. In this study, AFM, was detected in 8 (13.1%) of 61 human breast milk samples examined (mean +/- SD level, 5.68 +/- 0.62 ng/liter; range, 5.10 to 6.90 ng/liter) and 20 (33.3%) of 60 raw cow's milk samples examined (range, 5.40 to 300.20 ng/liter). Five (8.3%) of the positive raw cow's milk samples had AFM1 levels (153.52 +/- 100.60 ng/liter; range, 61.20 to 300.20 ng/liter) that were higher than the maximum tolerance limit (0.05 ppb) stipulated by regulations in Turkey and some other countries.

Aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in raw bulk milk from French dairy herds

Mycotoxins in milk are a public health concern and have to be regularly monitored. A survey on the presence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in raw bulk milk was conducted in 2003 in the northwest of France, the main French milk-producing basin. Randomly selected farms (n = 132) were characterized by a diet based on corn silage and containing a large proportion of on-farm produced cereals, feeding sources that are frequently contaminated by mycotoxins. Farms were surveyed twice in winter and in summer. At each sampling time, a trained surveyor completed a questionnaire recording farm management procedures and production traits. The AFM1 was found in 3 out of 264 samples but at levels (26 ng/L or less) that are below the European legislation limit of 50 ng/L. Traces of AFM1 (less than 8 ng/L) were also found in 6 other samples. The OTA was detected in 3 samples also at low levels, 5 to 8 ng/L. Farms that tested positive to the presence of mycotoxins, 12 in total including 6 farms that had traces of AFM1, differed from negative farms by a more extensive use of total mixed rations, 58 vs. 27%. In addition, the positive farms tended to have lower milk yields. Although the incidence of milk contamination with AFM1 and OTA at the farm level was low during the period studied, production and management data from the surveyed farms suggest a link between feeding management practices and mycotoxin contamination.

Detection of aflatoxin M1 in raw and commercial pasteurized milk in Urmia, Iran

During the years 2005 and 2006, samples of raw and of pasteurized milk (72 samples each) were collected randomly from various parts of Urmia city in Iran for the detection of aflatoxin M1. Aflatoxin M1 levels were assessed by Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA). There was a high incidence of AFM1 (100%), in both raw and pasteurized milk samples. The AFM1 levels in 6.25% of samples were higher than the maximum tolerance limit accepted by European Union (50 ng L(-1)), while the observed mean ofAFM1 was lower than those proposed for European diets. Maximum level ofAFM1 in raw and pasteurized samples were 91.8 and 28.5 ng L(-1), while minimum levels were 4.3 and 5.1 ng L(-1), respectively. The levels ofAFM1 in total samples indicated that feeds for cows in this region were contaminated with AFB1 in such a level that appears to be a serious public health problem at the moment. Therefore, there is a need to limit exposure to aflatoxins by imposing regulatory limits.