Fusariummycotoxin content of UK organic and conventional wheat

Simulating ozone degradation of deoxynivalenol and its bio-safety assessment by mouse model

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene mycotoxin, is one of the most prevalent mycotoxins globally, primarily produced by Fusarium species. DON exposure could cause a range of symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, gastroenteritis, growth retardation, immunosuppression, and intestinal flora disorders in both humans and animals. Recently, ozone degradation technology has been applied for DON control. However, the safety of the contaminated grain after degradation was often ignored. Therefore, the implementation technology for assessing the safety of DON-contaminated grain degradation is of great significance for food safety. In this study, based on previous degradation result of DON, we further studied and assessed the toxicity of corn contaminated with ozone-degrading DON by animal experiments in mice. We simulated feed made from corn contaminated with DON produced by inoculated Fusarium graminearum, which was treated with an ozone aqueous solution. DON treated by ozone could effectively increase the expression of total protein in mice and improve the immune system efficacy. Meanwhile, compared with DON directly-exposed mice, the corn with degrading DON could effectively maintain the level of liver and kidney immune function, and improved growth performance, enterohepatic circulation, and energy metabolism. Our study indicated that the toxicity of fed corn contaminated with degrading-DON decreased significantly after ozone degradation, resulting in a much lower toxicity compared to the DON group, or nontoxicity to some extent. Therefore, we hope that this mouse model could be used as a promising approach for assessing the risk of fungal toxins on metabolism, immunity, and intestinal health.

Hazard characterisation for significant mycotoxins in food

This review updates the current status of activities related to hazard characterisation for mycotoxins, with special reference to regulatory work accomplished within the European Union. Because the relevant information on these topics is widely scattered in the scientific literature, this review intends to provide a condensed overview on the most pertinent aspects. Human health risk assessment is a procedure to estimate the nature and potential for harmful effects of mycotoxins on human health due to exposure to them via contaminated food. This assessment involves hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment, and risk characterisation. Mycotoxins covered in this review are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, cyclopiazonic acid, citrinin, trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2, and HT-2 toxins), fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, and ergot alkaloids. For mycotoxins with clear genotoxic/carcinogenic properties, the focus is on the margin of exposure approach. One of its goals is to document predictive characterisation of the human hazard, based on studies in animals using conditions of low exposure. For the other, non-genotoxic toxins, individual 'no adverse effect levels' have been established, but structural analogues or modified forms may still complicate assessment. During the process of hazard characterisation, each identified effect is assessed for human relevance. The estimation of a 'safe dose' is the hazard characterisation endpoint. The final aim of all of these activities is to establish a system, which is able to minimise and control the risk for the consumer from mycotoxins in food. Ongoing research on mycotoxins constantly comes up with new findings, which may have to be implemented into this system.

Free and Modified Mycotoxins in Organic and Conventional Oats (Avena sativa L.) Grown in Scotland

Small grain cereals are frequently infected with mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi. Oats have a particularly high risk of contamination with type A trichothecene mycotoxins; their glucoside conjugates have also been reported. Agronomy practices, cereal variety and weather conditions have been suggested to play a role in Fusarium infection in oats. The current study investigates concentrations of free and conjugated Fusarium mycotoxins in organic and conventional oats grown in Scotland. In 2019, 33 milling oat samples (12 organic, 21 conventional) were collected from farmers across Scotland, together with sample questionnaires. Samples were analysed for 12 mycotoxins (type A trichothecenes T-2-toxin, HT-2-toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol; type B trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, nivalenol; zearalenone and their respective glucosides) using LC-MS/MS. The prevalence of type A trichothecenes T-2/HT-2 was very high (100% of conventional oats, 83% of organic oats), whereas type B trichothecenes were less prevalent, and zearalenone was rarely found. T-2-glucoside and deoxynivalenol-glucoside were the most prevalent conjugated mycotoxins (36 and 33%), and co-occurrence between type A and B trichothecenes were frequently observed (66% of samples). Organic oats were contaminated at significantly lower average concentrations than conventional oats, whereas the effect of weather parameters were not statistically significant. Our results clearly indicate that free and conjugated T-2- and HT-2-toxins pose a major risk to Scottish oat production and that organic production and crop rotation offer potential mitigation strategies.

Nivalenol Mycotoxin Concerns in Foods: An Overview on Occurrence, Impact on Human and Animal Health and Its Detection and Management Strategies

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that infect a wide range of foods worldwide. Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene produced by numerous Fusarium species, has the ability to infect a variety of foods both in the field and during post-harvest handling and management. NIV is frequently found in cereal and cereal-based goods, and its strong cytotoxicity poses major concerns for both human and animal health. To address these issues, this review briefly overviews the sources, occurrence, chemistry and biosynthesis of NIV. Additionally, a brief overview of several sophisticated detection and management techniques is included, along with the implications of processing and environmental factors on the formation of NIV. This review’s main goal is to offer trustworthy and current information on NIV as a mycotoxin concern in foods, with potential mitigation measures to assure food safety and security.

Prevalence of Fusarium fungi and Deoxynivalenol Levels in Winter Wheat Grain in Different Climatic Regions of Poland

Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by fungi of the genus Fusarium is one of the most dangerous crop diseases, which has a wide geographic distribution and causes severe economic losses in the production of major cereal species. The infection leads to the accumulation of mycotoxins in grains, which compromises its suitability for human and animal consumption. The study demonstrated that grain samples from warmer regions of Poland, including Sulejów and Tomaszów Bolesławicki (results differed across years of the study), were colonized mainly by F. graminearum and were most highly contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON). Samples from Northeastern Poland, i.e., Ruska Wieś, which is located in a cooler region, were characterized by a predominance of Fusarium species typical of the cold climate, i.e., Fusarium poae and Penicillium verrucosum. A Spearman’s rank correlation analysis revealed that the severity of grain infection with F. avenaceum/F. tricinctum was affected by the mean daily temperature and high humidity in May, and the corresponding values of the correlation coefficient were determined at R = 0.54 and R = 0.50. Competitive interactions were observed between the F. avenaceum/F. tricinctum genotype and DON-producing F. culmorum and F. graminearum, because the severity of grain infections caused by these pathogens was bound by a negative correlation.

Pydiflumetofen Co-Formulated with Prothioconazole: A Novel Fungicide for Fusarium Head Blight and Deoxynivalenol Control

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease of small grain cereals worldwide, resulting in reduced yield and quality as well as the contamination of harvested grains with mycotoxins. The key mycotoxin of concern is deoxynivalenol (DON), which has legislative and advisory limits in numerous countries. Cereal growers have a number of control options for FHB including rotation, cultivation, and varietal resistance; however, growers are still reliant on fungicides applied at flowering as part of an IPM program. Fungicides currently available to control FHB are largely restricted to triazole chemistry. This study conducted three field experiments to compare a new co-formulation of pydiflumetofen (a succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI) with the tradename ADEPIDYN^™) and prothioconazole (a triazole) against current standard fungicides at various timings (flag leaf fully emerged, mid-head emergence, early flowering, and late flowering) for the control of FHB and DON. Overall, the co-formulation showed greater efficacy compared to either pydiflumetofen alone or current fungicide chemistry. This greater activity was demonstrated over a wide range of spray timings (flag leaf fully emerged to late flowering). The availability of an SDHI with good activity against FHB and the resulting DON contamination of harvested grain will give growers an additional tool within an IPM program that will provide a greater flexibility of spray application windows and reduce fungicide resistance selection pressure.

Key Global Actions for Mycotoxin Management in Wheat and Other Small Grains

Mycotoxins in small grains are a significant and long-standing problem. These contaminants may be produced by members of several fungal genera, including Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Interventions that limit contamination can be made both pre-harvest and post-harvest. Many problems and strategies to control them and the toxins they produce are similar regardless of the location at which they are employed, while others are more common in some areas than in others. Increased knowledge of host-plant resistance, better agronomic methods, improved fungicide management, and better storage strategies all have application on a global basis. We summarize the major pre- and post-harvest control strategies currently in use. In the area of pre-harvest, these include resistant host lines, fungicides and their application guided by epidemiological models, and multiple cultural practices. In the area of post-harvest, drying, storage, cleaning and sorting, and some end-product processes were the most important at the global level. We also employed the Nominal Group discussion technique to identify and prioritize potential steps forward and to reduce problems associated with human and animal consumption of these grains. Identifying existing and potentially novel mechanisms to effectively manage mycotoxin problems in these grains is essential to ensure the safety of humans and domesticated animals that consume these grains.

Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Methods to Predict Growth of F. sporotrichioides and Production of T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Treatments with Ethylene-Vinyl Alcohol Films Containing Pure Components of Essential Oils

The efficacy of ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer films (EVOH) incorporating the essential oil components cinnamaldehyde (CINHO), citral (CIT), isoeugenol (IEG), or linalool (LIN) to control growth rate (GR) and production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins by Fusarium sporotrichioides cultured on oat grains under different temperature (28, 20, and 15 °C) and water activity (a_w) (0.99 and 0.96) regimes was assayed. GR in controls/treatments usually increased with increasing temperature, regardless of a_w, but no significant differences concerning a_w were found. Toxin production decreased with increasing temperature. The effectiveness of films to control fungal GR and toxin production was as follows: EVOH-CIT > EVOH-CINHO > EVOH-IEG > EVOH-LIN. With few exceptions, effective doses of EVOH-CIT, EVOH-CINHO, and EVOH-IEG films to reduce/inhibit GR by 50%, 90%, and 100% (ED₅₀, ED₉₀, and ED₁₀₀) ranged from 515 to 3330 µg/culture in Petri dish (25 g oat grains) depending on film type, a_w, and temperature. ED₉₀ and ED₁₀₀ of EVOH-LIN were >3330 µg/fungal culture. The potential of several machine learning (ML) methods to predict F. sporotrichioides GR and T-2 and HT-2 toxin production under the assayed conditions was comparatively analyzed. XGBoost and random forest attained the best performance, support vector machine and neural network ranked third or fourth depending on the output, while multiple linear regression proved to be the worst.

Fusarium mycotoxin content and Fusarium species presence in Czech organic and conventional wheat

Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone content and the presence of Fusarium species in organically and conventionally grown wheat harvested in the Czech Republic during 2015-2017 were studied. Mycotoxin contamination was compared using two approaches. The first was based on samples taken from randomly selected farms in individual regions of the Czech Republic, both organic (154 samples) and conventional (330 samples). In the second approach, a sample set of conventional wheat compatible with organic one was formed, with samples paired according to the preceding crop and region of harvest. Using the first approach, mycotoxins were shown to be higher in conventional wheat; however, there was no difference in mycotoxin contamination between organic and conventional wheat using the second approach. Eight wheat samples with mycotoxin content above the EU limits were found, seven for deoxynivalenol (2.1%) and one for zearalenone (0.3%), all of them originated from conventional farming system. Six of them had maize as the preceding crop. The presence of five Fusarium species (Fusarium avenaceum, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium poae and Fusarium sporotrichioides) was compared for the compatible wheat sample sets (second approach). The predominant species were found to be F. poae and F. graminearum in both the organic and conventional wheat. Harvest year significantly influenced both the occurrence of the main Fusarium species and the level of mycotoxin contamination. The study confirmed that (a) organic farming system was able to keep mycotoxin contamination of wheat at a low level, (b) in studies on the significance of organic/conventional agricultural practice on mycotoxin levels in cereals, it is important to pay attention to common production and environmental variables.

Mycotoxins in wheat cultivated in the Netherlands: results from eight years of field surveys

In the period 2009–2018, an annual field survey with commercial arable farms in the Netherlands was held, to collect data on agronomics of wheat fields as well as mycotoxin concentrations of the specific wheat field at harvest. In total, 293 full farm field records over 8 years were obtained. This study aimed to investigate (i) the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and other mycotoxins, as well as correlations between these mycotoxins, and (ii) the relationships between agronomics and the DON concentration in wheat kernels for wheat cultivated in the Netherlands. Results showed that mycotoxins most frequently observed in concentrations above the limit of quantification were DON, enniatin B and B₁, HT-2 toxin, zearalenone (ZEN) and nivalenol. On average, DON was detected in 54% of the samples (> 50 µg/kg) ranging from 19 to 92% depending on the year. Positive samples (> 50 µg/kg) had DON concentrations ranging 53–15,400 µg/kg, with a median of 228 µg/kg. Co-occurrence between DON and ZEN as well as between each of DON and ZEN with their modified forms was confirmed by the data of this study. The year influenced the DON concentration in wheat the most, followed by the region. The results of this study show that DON levels in wheat can only be influenced in a limited manner by agronomic practices such as the use of fungicides against Fusarium spp. around flowering, crop rotation, or the use of resistant wheat cultivars.

Fusarium Mycotoxins in Two Hulless Oat and Barley Cultivars Used for Food Purposes

Hulless oats and hulless barley are highly valued for their excellent nutritional attributes and are increasingly being promoted in human nutrition. However, special attention should be paid to the risk of their contamination by Fusarium mycotoxins, as the rate of mycotoxin reduction during processing could be much lower than that for hulled cereals. In the present study, mycotoxin contamination of two cultivars, each of hulless oats and barley suitable for food purposes were studied in a 3-year field trial established in two contrasting environments. The contents of the mycotoxins regulated by law (deoxynivalenol and zearalenone) were low, and the present legal limits for their maximum content in unprocessed cereals were far from being exceeded. The mycotoxins most frequently occurring in hulless barley were enniatins (enniatin B, enniatin B₁ and enniatin A₁), beauvericin and nivalenol; hulless oats most frequently contained the HT-2 and T-2 toxins, beauvericin and enniatin B. The contents of enniatins and nivalenol were higher in barley than in oats. Close, positive relationships between the contents of the individual enniatins and between enniatins, beauvericin and nivalenol were observed, which implies that co-exposure could enhance the toxic potential of these mycotoxins through synergistic effects. The results highlight the need to pay more attention to the occurrence of enniatins, beauvericine and nivalenol in hulless oats and barley used for food purposes.

Wheat straw vinegar: A more cost-effective solution than chemical fungicides for sustainable wheat plant protection

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by the fungal pathogen Fusarium graminearum, is a destructive and widespread wheat disease. Chemical fungicides are becoming less effective at reducing the disease severity of FHB, and there is a need to find a more effective, low-cost natural product. A by-product of the pyrolysis of wheat straw is a condensate known as wheat straw vinegar, which was hypothesized to be an effective F. graminearum inhibitor in wheat. The organic and mineral compositions of wheat straw vinegar were analyzed. The results of GC-MS indicated that the major organic compounds in wheat straw vinegar are phenolics and acetic acid. The main inorganic elements in the liquid were K, Ca, S and Mg. A bio-test of wheat straw vinegar showed strong antifungal activity on F. graminearum growth and production of deoxynivalenol (DON) with an EC₅₀ (concentration for 50% of maximal effect) value of 3.1 μl ml^-1. Field tests showed that the application of wheat straw vinegar diluted 200-fold significantly decreased the wheat FHB infection rate and DON content by 66% and 69%, respectively. The control efficacy of wheat straw vinegar at a dilution of 200-fold was similar to that of typical chemical fungicide applications. The use of wheat straw vinegar may increase farmers' income by reducing the net fungicide costs. Therefore, wheat straw vinegar has high potential as a natural fungicide for the control of FHB and can reduce the dependence on synthetic fungicides.

The wheat SnRK1α family and its contribution to Fusarium toxin tolerance

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by phytopathogenic Fusarium fungi in cereal grain and plays a role as a disease virulence factor. TaFROG (Triticum aestivum Fusarium Resistance Orphan Gene) enhances wheat resistance to DON and it interacts with a sucrose non-fermenting-1 (SNF1)-related protein kinase 1 catalytic subunit α (SnRK1α). This protein kinase family is central integrator of stress and energy signalling, regulating plant metabolism and growth. Little is known regarding the role of SnRK1α in the biotic stress response, especially in wheat. In this study, 15 wheat (Triticum aestivum) SnRK1α genes (TaSnRK1αs) belonging to four homoeologous groups were identified in the wheat genome. TaSnRK1αs are expressed ubiquitously in all organs and developmental stages apart from two members predominantly detected in grain. While DON treatment had either no effect or downregulated the transcription of TaSnRK1αs, it increased both the kinase activity associated with SnRK1α and the level of active (phosphorylated) SnRK1α. Down-regulation of two TaSnRK1αs homoeolog groups using virus induced gene silencing (VIGS) increased the DON-induced damage of wheat spikelets. Thus, we demonstrate that TaSnRK1αs contribute positively to wheat tolerance of DON and conclude that this gene family may provide useful tools for the improvement of crop biotic stress resistance.

Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains - An Update

Trichothecenes are sesquiterpenoid mycotoxins produced by fungi from the order Hypocreales, including members of the Fusarium genus that infect cereal grain crops. Different trichothecene-producing Fusarium species and strains have different trichothecene chemotypes belonging to the Type A and B class. These fungi cause a disease of small grain cereals, called Fusarium head blight, and their toxins contaminate host tissues. As potent inhibitors of eukaryotic protein synthesis, trichothecenes pose a health risk to human and animal consumers of infected cereal grains. In 2009, Foroud and Eudes published a review of trichothecenes in cereal grains for human consumption. As an update to this review, the work herein provides a comprehensive and multi-disciplinary review of the Fusarium trichothecenes covering topics in chemistry and biochemistry, pathogen biology, trichothecene toxicity, molecular mechanisms of resistance or detoxification, genetics of resistance and breeding strategies to reduce their contamination of wheat and barley.

Performance of Winter Wheat Cultivars Grown Organically and Conventionally with Focus on Fusarium Head Blight and Fusarium Trichothecene Toxins

Growing acreage and changing consumer preferences cause increasing interest in the cereal products originating from organic farming. Lack of results of objective test, however, does not allow drawing conclusions about the effects of cultivation in the organic system and comparison to currently preferred conventional system. Field experiment was conducted in organic and conventional fields. Thirty modern cultivars of winter wheat were sown. They were characterized for disease infection including Fusarium head blight, seed sowing value, the amount of DNA of the six species of Fusarium fungi as well as concentration of ergosterol and trichothecenes in grain. The intensity Fusarium head blight was at a similar level in both systems. However, Fusarium colonization of kernels expressed as ergosterol level or DNA concentration was higher for the organic system. It did not reflect in an increased accumulation of trichothecenes in grain, which was similar in both systems, but sowing value of organically produced seeds was lower. Significant differences between analyzed cropping systems and experimental variants were found. The selection of the individual cultivars for organic growing in terms of resistance to diseases and contamination of grain with Fusarium toxins was possible. Effects of organic growing differ significantly from the conventional and grain obtained such way can be recommended to consumers. There are indications for use of particular cultivars bred for conventional agriculture in the case of organic farming, and the growing organic decreases plant stress resulting from intense fertilization and chemical plant protection.

Natural Occurrence and Co-Contamination of Twelve Mycotoxins in Industry-Submitted Cool-Season Cereal Grains Grown under a Low Heat Unit Climate Condition

This study aims to evaluate the prevalence of mycotoxins in industry-submitted cool-season barley and wheat grown under low heat unit climate conditions. Seventy-two barley samples and 83 wheat samples were submitted by producers and industry from May 2016 to May 2017. The concentrations of twelve common mycotoxins, including nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), α-zearalenol (α-ZAL), β-zearalenol (β-ZAL), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), T-2 toxin (T-2), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), were determined using the liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method. Mycotoxins were detected in 40 barley (56%) and 35 wheat (42%) samples submitted by producers and industry. DON showed the highest incidence in barley (44%) and wheat (33%). None of the barley samples contained detectable DAS and no wheat samples tested positive for α-ZAL, DAS, T-2, or AFB1. Co-occurrence of DON and other mycotoxins was frequently observed. Among the mycotoxin-positive samples, 70% of barley samples and 54% of wheat samples were co-contaminated with at least two mycotoxins. Four barley (6%) and five wheat (6%) samples contained levels of DON above 1000 μg/kg (regulatory level in diets for lactating dairy animals) and HT-2 content in five barley (7%) and four wheat (5%) samples exceeded 100 μg/kg (regulatory level in diets for cattle and poultry). Overall, contamination of these mycotoxins was more frequent and more severe in barley in comparison with wheat that was submitted by producers and industry. Comprehensive strategies, including the prevention of Fusarium toxins contamination, the routine monitoring of their prevalence, the detoxification of them in feed and food, as well as the inhibition of their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, are highly required. A rapid detection method needs to be developed to screen mycotoxins in industry-submitted cool-season cereal grains.

Contamination of Wheat Cultivated in Various Regions of Poland during 2017 and 2018 Agricultural Seasons with Selected Trichothecenes and Their Modified Forms

Cross-interaction of antibodies within the immunoaffinity columns used in this study facilitated the simultaneous determination of nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), their glucoside derivatives (NIV-3G, DON-3G), and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-AcDON) in wheat grain harvested in various regions of Poland. In Poland, 2018 was a warm, dry agricultural season, and hence, was relatively less favourable for cereal cultivation than 2017. Data on the natural occurrence of NIV-3G in wheat grain are among the first published in the literature. DON was the most frequently found mycotoxin in the tested samples; the percentage occurrence of DON-positive samples was 92% in 2017 and 61% in 2018. Moreover, DON concentrations were generally higher in 2017 samples (5.2⁻1670.7 µg/kg) than those in 2018 samples (range 5.0⁻461.7 µg/kg). A similar pattern was found for DON-3G. However, no statistically significant differences between the samples from the two agricultural seasons were observed for the other three mycotoxins that were analysed, and their concentrations were generally considerably lower. DON was strongly correlated with DON-3G (correlation coefficient r = 0.9558), while NIV was strongly correlated with NIV-3G (r = 0.9442). The percentage occurrence of NIV-3G- and DON-3G-positive samples was 14% in 2017 and 49% in 2018. The NIV-3G/NIV ratio was 5.9⁻35.7%, while the DON-3G/DON ratio range was 3.2⁻53.6%. In 2018, wheat samples from Southern Poland exhibited statistically significantly higher levels of DON than those from Northern Poland. The dry and hot summer of 2018 not only reduced wheat yields, but also limited development of Fusarium spp. Therefore, grain harvested that year was generally contaminated with relatively low levels of mycotoxins. Lower levels of DON were also accompanied by lesser amounts of DON-derivatives.

Development of an Analytical Method for Simultaneous Determination of the Modified Forms of 4,15-Diacetoxyscirpenol and their Occurrence in Japanese Retail Food

4,15-Diacetoxyscirpenol (4,15-DAS) is a type A trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species. Four modified forms of 4,15-DAS including 7-hydroxydiacetoxyscirpenol, 7,8-dihydroxydiacetoxyscirpenol, 4β,8α,15-triacetoxy-3α,7α-dihydroxy-12,13-epoxytrichothec-9-ene and 4,15-diacetylnivalenol were purified from cultures of F. equiseti. An analytical method using a multifunctional column has been developed for the simultaneous determination of 4,15-DAS, its four modified forms, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and neosolaniol in cereals. The performance of the current method was evaluated, and a total of 248 samples of five different commodities were analyzed for over two years by this method. 4,15-DAS was detected in Job’s tears products, corn flour and azuki bean, but it was not found in wheat flour or rye flour. The four modified forms of 4,15-DAS were detected in samples of Job’s tears products, contaminated by 4,15-DAS. This is the first report on quantification of the modified forms of 4,15-DAS in cereals.

Impact of agronomic and climatic factors on the mycotoxin content of harvested oats in the United Kingdom

A survey was conducted to determine the concentration of Fusarium mycotoxins in UK oats over three seasons (2006-8). One hundred oat samples were collected each year at harvest, together with agronomic details, and analysed for 10 Fusarium mycotoxins. The incidence and concentration of most Fusarium mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, were relatively low in oats compared with values previously reported for wheat. HT-2 toxin (HT2) and T-2 toxin (T2) levels were relatively high with an overall combined (HT2+T2) mean of 450 μg kg^-1 for 2006-8. Data were combined with a previous dataset collected from 2002-5 to determine the effects of agronomic practices and climate. There was a negative relationship with late summer rainfall, indicating that drier conditions in July and August resulted in increased HT2 and T2 in UK oats. Agronomic factors that impacted upon HT2 and T2 in harvested oats were previous crop, cultivation, and variety. Analysis of the previous cropping history showed there was a stepwise increase in HT2+T2 as the cereal intensity of the rotation increased. Variety was an important factor, with higher levels and a wider range detected on winter versus spring varieties. Indicative levels for HT2 and T2 in cereals and cereal products were introduced by the EC in 2013. The indicative level for unprocessed oats for human consumption is a combined concentration (HT2+T2) of 1000 μg kg^-1. From 2002 to 2008, between 1% and 30% of samples exceeded 1000 μg kg^-1 HT2+T2 each year (overall mean, 16%). The introduction of European legislation on HT2 and T2 mycotoxins could have serious implications for UK oat production and oat-processing industries based on the levels detected within these studies.

Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink.

Presence of Enniatins and Beauvericin in Romanian Wheat Samples: From Raw Material to Products for Direct Human Consumption

In this study, a total of 244 wheat and wheat-based products collected from Romania were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in order to evaluate the presence of four enniatins (ENs; i.e., ENA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1) and beauvericin (BEA). For the wheat samples, the influence of agricultural practices was assessed, whereas the results for the wheat-based products were used to calculate the estimated daily intake of emerging mycotoxins through wheat consumption for the Romanian population. ENB presented the highest incidence (41% in wheat and 32% in wheat-based products), with its maximum levels of 815 μg kg-1 and 170 μg kg-1 in wheat and wheat-based products, respectively. The correlation between the concentrations of ENB and ENB1 in wheat grain samples and farm practices (organic or conventional) was confirmed statistically (p < 0.05). This is the first study that provides comprehensive information about the influence of agricultural practice on emerging Fusarium mycotoxin presence in Romanian wheat samples and the estimated daily intake of ENs and BEA present in wheat-based products for human consumption commercialized in Romania.

Changes in the Fusarium Head Blight Complex of Malting Barley in a Three-Year Field Experiment in Italy

In this study, conducted for three years on eleven malting barley varieties cultivated in central Italy, the incidence of different mycotoxigenic fungal genera, the identification of the Fusarium species associated with the Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) complex, and kernels contamination with deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 mycotoxins were determined. The influence of climatic conditions on Fusarium infections and FHB complex composition was also investigated. Fusarium species were always present in the three years and the high average and maximum temperatures during anthesis mainly favored their occurrence. The FHB complex was subject to changes during the three years and the main causal agents were F. poae, F. avenaceum, F. tricinctum and F. graminearum, which, even if constantly present, never represented the principal FHB agent. The relative incidence of Fusarium species changed because of climatic conditions occurring during the seasons. The FHB complex was composed of many different Fusarium species and some of them were associated with a specific variety and/or with specific weather parameters, indicating that the interaction between a certain plant genotype and climatic conditions may influence the presence of Fusarium spp. causing infections. With regard to mycotoxin contamination, T-2 toxin, in some cases, was found in kernels at levels that exceeded EU recommended values.

Optimization for the Production of Deoxynivalenoland Zearalenone by Fusarium graminearum UsingResponse Surface Methodology

Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most common contaminants in cereals worldwide, causing a wide range of adverse health effects on animals and humans. Many environmental factors can affect the production of these mycotoxins. Here, we have used response surface methodology (RSM) to optimize the Fusarium graminearum strain 29 culture conditions for maximal toxin production. Three factors, medium pH, incubation temperature and time, were optimized using a Box-Behnken design (BBD). The optimized conditions for DON production were pH 4.91 and an incubation temperature of 23.75 °C for 28 days, while maximal ZEN production required pH 9.00 and an incubation temperature of 15.05 °C for 28 days. The maximum levels of DON and ZEN production were 2811.17 ng/mL and 23789.70 ng/mL, respectively. Considering the total level of DON and ZEN, desirable yields of the mycotoxins were still obtained with medium pH of 6.86, an incubation temperature of 17.76 °C and a time of 28 days. The corresponding experimental values, from the validation experiments, fitted well with these predictions. This suggests that RSM could be used to optimize Fusarium mycotoxin levels, which are further purified for use as potential mycotoxin standards. Furthermore, it shows that acidic pH is a determinant for DON production, while an alkaline environment and lower temperature (approximately 15 °C) are favorable for ZEN accumulation. After extraction, separation and purification processes, the isolated mycotoxins were obtained through a simple purification process, with desirable yields, and acceptable purity. The mycotoxins could be used as potential analytical standards or chemical reagents for routine analysis.

Determination of T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Oats and Oat-Based Breakfast Cereals by Liquid-Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

This protocol specifies an accurate and sensitive method for the determination of T-2 and HT-2 toxins content in oats and oat-based foods using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry detection. T-2 and HT-2 toxins are extracted from the test material with a mixture of acetonitrile and water. The filtered extract is dried, reconstituted with a mixture of methanol and water, then purified on a polymeric solid-phase extraction cartridge. Toxins are finally eluted from the column with methanol and quantified by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry detection.

Worldwide Mycotoxins Exposure in Pig and Poultry Feed Formulations

The purpose of this review is to present information about raw materials that can be used in pig and poultry diets and the factors responsible for variations in their mycotoxin contents. The levels of mycotoxins in pig and poultry feeds are calculated based on mycotoxin contamination levels of the raw materials with different diet formulations, to highlight the important role the stage of production and the raw materials used can have on mycotoxins levels in diets. Our analysis focuses on mycotoxins for which maximum tolerated levels or regulatory guidelines exist, and for which sufficient contamination data are available. Raw materials used in feed formulation vary considerably depending on the species of animal, and the stage of production. Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites whose frequency and levels also vary considerably depending on the raw materials used and on the geographic location where they were produced. Although several reviews of existing data and of the literature on worldwide mycotoxin contamination of food and feed are available, the impact of the different raw materials used on feed formulation has not been widely studied.

Mycotoxins in organically versus conventionally produced cereal grains and some other crops in temperate regions

This paper presents peer-reviewed studies comparing the content of deoxynivalenol (DON), HT-2+T-2 toxins, zearalenone (ZEA), nivalenol (NIV), ochratoxin A (OTA) and fumonisins in cereal grains, and patulin (PAT) in apple and apple-based products, produced in organically and conventionally grown crops in temperate regions. Some of the studies are based on data from controlled field trials, however, most are farm surveys and some are food basket surveys. Almost half of the studies focused on DON in cereals. The majority of these studies found no significant difference in DON content in grain from the two farming systems, but several studies showed lower DON content in organically than in conventionally produced cereals. A number of the investigations reported low DON levels in grain, far below the EU limits for food. Many authors suggested that weather conditions, years, locations, tillage practice and crop rotation are more important for the development of DON than the type of farming. Organically produced oats contained mainly lower levels of HT-2+T-2 toxins than conventionally produced oats. Most studies on ZEA reported no differences between farming systems, or lower concentrations in organically produced grain. For the other mycotoxins in cereals, mainly low levels and no differences between the two farming systems were reported. Some studies showed higher PAT contamination in organically than in conventionally produced apple and apple products. The difference may be due to more efficient disease control in conventional orchards. It cannot be concluded that any of the two farming systems increases the risk of mycotoxin contamination. Despite no use of fungicides, an organic system appears generally able to maintain mycotoxin contamination at low levels. More systematic comparisons from scientifically controlled field trials and surveys are needed to clarify if there are differences in the risk of mycotoxin contamination between organically and conventionally produced crops.

Climate, Soil Management, and Cultivar Affect Fusarium Head Blight Incidence and Deoxynivalenol Accumulation in Durum Wheat of Southern Italy

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a multifaceted disease caused by some species of Fusarium spp. A huge production of mycotoxins, mostly trichothecenes, often accompanied this disease. Amongst these toxic compounds, deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives represent a major issue for human as well as for animal health and farming. Common and durum wheat are amongst the hosts of trichothecene-producing Fusaria. Differences in susceptibility to fungal infection and toxin accumulation occur in wheat cultivars. Recently, increasing incidence and severity of Fusarium infection and a higher DON accumulation in durum wheat were observed in Italy, especially in Northern regions. In this study, we analyzed wheat yield, technological parameters, the incidence of Fusarium infection and DON content in kernel samples of durum wheat coming from three locations of Southern Italy with different climatic conditions and grown during two seasons, with two methods of cultivation. Four different durum wheat cultivars prevalently cultivated in Southern Italian areas were chosen for this study. Our analysis showed the effects of environment and cultivar types on wheat productivity and key technological parameters for the quality level of the end-product, namely pasta. Notably, although a low rate of mycotoxin contamination in all study sites was assessed, an inverse relation emerged between fungal infection/DON production and durum wheat yield. Further, our study pinpoints the importance of environment conditions on several quality traits of durum wheat grown under Mediterranean climate. The environmental conditions at local level (microscale) and soil management practices may drive FHB outbreak and mycotoxin contamination even in growing area suitable for cropping this wheat species.

Estimated exposure to EU regulated mycotoxins and risk characterization of aflatoxin-induced hepatic toxicity through the consumption of the toasted cereal flour called "gofio", a traditional food of the Canary Islands (Spain)

"Gofio" is a type of flour made from toasted grain, which is part of the staple food in the Canary Islands, Spain, in which the occurrence of Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), Fumonisins B1 and B2 (FB1 and FB2) Ochratoxin A (OTA), Deoxynivalenol (DNV) and Zearalenone (ZEA) was evaluated. 83% of the samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin and 69.2% of the analyzed samples showed co-occurrence of mycotoxins (range 2 to 8). All the concentrations were well below the established limits (maximum values of AFs=0.42 μg/kg; FBs=178.3 μg/kg; OTA=0.3 μg/kg; DON=92.5 μg/kg; and ZEA=9.9 μg/kg). The daily dietary exposure to total AFs was estimated to be 7.1% of the TDI. This value was almost double in children, and considering the upper-bound approach could reach 35% of the TDI. For the rest of mycotoxins, the consumers would be exposed to less than 2% of their TDIs. The risk characterization indicates that there is a potential risk in developing aflatoxin induced liver cancer due to gofio consumption in the subpopulation which is simultaneously exposed to other hepatocarcinogens, such as the hepatitis B virus.

Effect of environmental factors on Fusarium population and associated trichothecenes in wheat grain grown in Jiangsu province, China

The present study was performed to identify prevailing Fusarium species and the environmental factors affecting their frequencies and the contamination of grain with major mycotoxins in Jiangsu province. The precipitation levels were 184.2mm, 156.4mm, and 245.8mm in the years 2013-2015, respectively, and the temperature fluctuated by an average of 10.6±7.2°C in 2013, 10.9±7.2°C in 2014, and 10.6±6.3°C in 2015. Co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3ADON), and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15ADON) were observed in wheat. The average concentrations of DON were 879.3±1127.8, 627.8±640.5, and 1628.6±2,168.0μg/kg in 2013-2015, respectively. The average concentrations of 3ADON were 43.5±59.0, 71.2±102.5, and 33.5±111.9μg/kg in 2013-2015, respectively. We found that the average concentration of DON in wheat was positively correlated with precipitation (r=0.998, p<0.01), and 3ADON was negatively correlated with precipitation (r=-0.887, p<0.05). However, there was no correlation between precipitation and 15ADON or nivalenol (NIV). The differences in temperature were not as significant as the differences in rainfall amount over a short time period. Therefore, there were no correlations between temperature and the concentrations of trichothecenes, excluding 3ADON (r=0.996, p<0.01). Our data indicated that Fusarium asiaticum is the primary pathogenic fungus prevalent in the Fusarium head blight disease nursery. The trichothecene chemotype composition differed between Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto (s. str.) and F. asiaticum isolates. The 3ADON chemotype was found only among strains of F. asiaticum. The NIV chemotype was not observed among strains of F. graminearum, while the 15ADON chemotype represented 100% of the F. graminearum strains collected. The results of this study indicated no correlations between environmental conditions and the species or genetic chemotype composition of pathogens in Jiangsu province in 2013-2015.

Updated survey of Fusarium species and toxins in Finnish cereal grains

The aim of the project was to produce updated information during 2005-14 on the Fusarium species found in Finnish cereal grains, and the toxins produced by them, as the last comprehensive survey study of Fusarium species and their toxins in Finland was carried out at the turn of the 1960s and the 1970s. Another aim was to use the latest molecular and chemical methods to investigate the occurrence and correlation of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in Finland. The most common Fusarium species found in Finland in the FinMyco project 2005 and 2006 were F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. poae, F. sporotrichioides and F. langsethiae. F. avenaceum was the most dominant species in barley, spring wheat and oat samples. The occurrence of F. culmorum and F. graminearum was high in oats and barley. Infection by Fusarium fungi was the lowest in winter cereal grains. The incidence of Fusarium species in 2005 was much higher than in 2006 due to weather conditions. F. langsethiae has become much more common in Finland since 2001. F. graminearum has also risen in the order of importance. A highly significant correlation was found between Fusarium graminearum DNA and deoxynivalenol (DON) levels in Finnish oats, barley and wheat. When comparing the FinMyco data in 2005-06 with the results of the Finnish safety monitoring programme for 2005-14, spring cereals were noted as being more susceptible to infection by Fusarium fungi and the formation of toxins. The contents of T-2 and HT-2 toxins and the frequency of exceptionally high DON concentrations all increased in Finland during 2005-14. Beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs) and moniliformin (MON) were also very common contaminants of Finnish grains in 2005-06. Climate change is leading to warmer weather, and this may indicate more changes in Finnish Fusarium mycobiota and toxin contents and profiles in the near future.

A non-linear model for temperature-dependent sporulation and T-2 and HT-2 production of Fusarium langsethiae and Fusarium sporotrichioides

This research has produced new quantitative data on the sporulation and T-2+HT-2 toxin production that could be further integrated to develop a comprehensive disease or toxin prediction model for Fusarium langsethiae and Fusarium sporotrichioides. Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of temperature or incubation time on sporulation and the effect of temperature on T-2+HT-2 toxin production of strains of the two species. F. sporotrichioides demonstrated a preference for higher temperatures than F. langsethiae during sporulation; the optimum temperature was 24.5 ± 0.7 °C for F. langsethiae and 32.3 ± 2.1 °C for F. sporotrichioides, according to the Beta equation fitted to the data. The dynamics of sporulation over different incubation times were fitted by a Gompertz function. The maximum spore production was estimated to be after 18 and 8 d incubation at optimum temperatures for F. langsethiae and F. sporotrichioides, respectively. F. sporotrichioides produced more T-2+HT-2 than F. langsethiae. The best fit of the effect of temperature on T-2+HT-2 production in wheat grains was obtained with a Beta equation showing an optimum temperature of 14.7 ± 0.8 °C for F. langsethiae and 12.1 ± 0.2 °C for F. sporotrichioides. The optimum temperature for mycotoxin production was lower than for sporulation.

Impact of post-anthesis rainfall, fungicide and harvesting time on the concentration of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in wheat

Field experiments were conducted to identify the impact of post-anthesis rainfall on the concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) in harvested wheat grain. Winter wheat plots were inoculated with Fusarium graminearum at stem extension (GS31) and prothioconazole was applied at mid-anthesis (GS65) to split plots and plots were subsequently mist irrigated for 5 days. Plots were either covered by polytunnels, irrigated by sprinklers or left as non-irrigated uncovered control plots after medium-milk (GS75). Plots were harvested either when ripe (GS92; early harvest) or three weeks later (late harvest). Fusarium head blight (FHB) was assessed each week from inoculation. At harvest, yield and grain quality was measured and grains were analysed for DON and ZON. Differences in rainfall resulted in contrasting disease pressure in the two experiments, with low FHB in the first experiment and high FHB in the second. Difference in FHB resulted in large differences in grain yield, quality and mycotoxin content. DON concentration was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in irrigated compared to covered and control plots in the first experiment, whereas in the second experiment, DON was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the covered plots compared to the control and irrigated plots. ZON concentration was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in irrigated plots in both experiments. Later harvesting resulted in an approximate fivefold increase in ZON in the first experiment, but was not significantly different in the second experiment. Prothioconazole significantly (P < 0.05) reduced DON in both experiments, but gave inconsistent reductions to ZON. This is the first report to show that the post-anthesis rainfall can significantly increase ZON in wheat, which can increase further with a delayed harvest but may be significantly reduced with the application of prothioconazole. Importantly, in the absence of moisture late season, ZON remains at very low concentrations even when wheat is severely affected by FHB.

Preliminary estimation of deoxynivalenol excretion through a 24 h pilot study

A duplicate diet study was designed to explore the occurrence of 15 Fusarium mycotoxins in the 24 h-diet consumed by one volunteer as well as the levels of mycotoxins in his 24 h-collected urine. The employed methodology involved solvent extraction at high ionic strength followed by dispersive solid phase extraction and gas chromatography determination coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem. Satisfactory results in method performance were achieved. The method’s accuracy was in a range of 68%–108%, with intra-day relative standard deviation and inter-day relative standard deviation lower than 12% and 15%, respectively. The limits of quantitation ranged from 0.1 to 8 µg/Kg. The matrix effect was evaluated and matrix-matched calibrations were used for quantitation. Only deoxynivalenol (DON) was quantified in both food and urine samples. A total DON daily intake amounted to 49.2 ± 5.6 µg whereas DON daily excretion of 35.2 ± 4.3 µg was determined. DON daily intake represented 68.3% of the established DON provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). Valuable preliminary information was obtained as regards DON excretion and needs to be confirmed in large-scale monitoring studies.

Co-occurrence of type A and B trichothecenes and zearalenone in wheat grown in northern Italy over the years 2009-2011

The occurrence of the most widespread type A and B trichothecenes and of zearalenone was surveyed in soft and durum wheat produced in northern Italy. A total of 293 wheat fields, grown in the years 2009-2011, were surveyed; for each field, weather and cropping system data were collected. The results indicated a high deoxynivalenol incidence, with durum always more contaminated than soft wheat; in 2010, the percentage of durum wheat samples exceeding the European Commission legal limit was 39.6%. As regards type A trichothecenes, widespread contamination was observed in 2010. In soft wheat, an incidence of 70% and 85% was found for T-2 and HT-2 toxins, respectively; all the durum wheat samples were contaminated. The trichothecene contamination was affected by weather conditions; copious rainfall and high relative humidity (RH) during flowering occurred in 2010, when the highest contamination of both type A and B trichothecenes was found.

Quantitative determination of trichothecenes in breadsticks by gas chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry

Breadsticks are pencil-sized sticks of dry bread widely consumed as a pre-meal appetiser. They are basically wheat-based snacks, which makes them a good matrix to evaluate mycotoxin contamination, since wheat is very susceptible to fungal attack. In this sense, the fast, selective and sensitive gas chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (GC-QqQ-MS/MS) method proposed here allows simultaneous determination of deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, fusarenon-X, diacetoxyscirpenol, nivalenol, neosolaniol, HT-2 and T-2 toxin in breadsticks after QuEChERS extraction and clean-up. The performance of the method was assessed with respect to European Commission Regulations by studying the selectivity and specificity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantitation (LOQ), linearity, matrix effect, accuracy, precision and trueness. Satisfactory results in terms of validation parameters were obtained for all selected mycotoxins (recovery range of 70-110%, RSD < 10%, LOQ <40 µg kg(-1)). The trueness of the method was supported by using certified reference material (DON 1062 ± 110 µg kg(-1)). The method was successfully used to evaluate the occurrence of the studied Fusarium toxins in 61 breadstick samples. A total of 64% of the samples showed mycotoxin contamination, DON being the most frequently detected toxin. Nonetheless, mean levels obtained were far below the maximum levels permitted by European Union legislation. An additional goal was to carry out a risk-characterisation approach to DON by comparing probable daily intake and provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI).

Fusarium head blight control and prevention of mycotoxin contamination in wheat with botanicals and tannic acid

Suspensions or solutions with 1% of Chinese galls (Galla chinensis, GC) or 1% of tannic acid (TA), inhibited germination of conidia or mycelium growth of Fusarium graminearum (FG) by 98%-100% or by 75%-80%, respectively, whereas dried bark from buckthorn (Frangula alnus, FA) showed no effect at this concentration. In climate chamber experiments where the wheat variety "Apogee" was artificially inoculated with FG and F. crookwellense (FCr) and treated with 5% suspensions of TA, GC and FA, the deoxynivalenol (DON) content in grains was reduced by 81%, 67% and 33%, respectively. In field experiments with two commercial wheat varieties and artificial or semi-natural inoculations, mean DON reductions of 66% (TA) and 58% (FA), respectively, were obtained. Antifungal toxicity can explain the high efficacies of TA and GC but not those of FA. The Fusarium head blight (FHB) and mycotoxin reducing effect of FA is probably due to elicitation of resistance in wheat plants. With semi-natural inoculation, a single FA application in the first half of the flowering period performed best. However, we assume that applications of FA at the end of ear emergence and a treatment, triggered by an infection period, with TA or GC during flowering, might perform better than synthetic fungicides.

Natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins in wheat grains from Italy and Syria

This article describes the application of an analytical method for the detection of 25 mycotoxins in wheat grain based on simultaneous extraction using matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) followed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, a hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometer (QTrap®). Information Dependent Acquisition (IDA), an extra confirmation tool for samples that contain the target mycotoxins, was used. The analysis of 40 Syrian and 46 Italian wheat grain samples interestingly showed that Syrian samples were mainly contaminated with ochratoxin A and aflatoxins, whereas Italian samples with deoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol. Emerging Fusarium mycotoxins were predominant in Italian samples compared to the Syrian. Among the analysed samples, only one was found containing zeralenone with level above the maximum European recommended concentration (100 ppb). These results confirm that climatic differences between Syria and Italy, both in Mediterranean basin, play a key role in the diversity of fungal genera and mycotoxins in wheat grains.

Determination of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in food and feed: an update

Based on the recent scientific opinion of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain on the risks to human and animal health related to the presence of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in food and feed that was published by EFSA in the EFSA Journal, this article provides an update on the determination of these Fusarium mycotoxins. After a brief introduction into the chemistry of these toxins, both chromatographic and immuno-analytical methods are discussed for the determination of these type A trichothecenes. During the last decade, liquid chromatography with (tandem) mass spectrometry has become the most frequently used method for the determination of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, often within a multi-analyte approach. However, complex matrices and the resulting signal suppression effects, as observed particularly in electrospray-mass spectrometry methods owing to matrix effects, may require careful optimisation of clean-up, usage of matrix matched standards, or e.g. the use of internal standards. For specific purposes where extremely low limits of quantification are needed, e.g. for the analysis of duplicate diets, a dedicated gas chromatography method with multistage mass spectrometry has become available. Other novel analytical approaches to determine T-2 and HT-2 toxins in food and feed include biosensor-based methods in surface plasmon resonance and electrochemical formats, as well as DNA microchip assays. For rapid screening, several immunochemical methods (mostly ELISAs) have become available and some are sold as commercial test kits. Whereas these methods work fast, cross-reactivities with other trichothecenes can have an undesired effect on their accuracy. While proficiency tests including T-2 and HT-2 toxins have been carried out, none of the chromatographic or immunochemical methods have been formally validated in interlaboratory validation studies. There are no certified reference materials available for T-2 and HT-2 toxins.