Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food products originating from locally reared animals in Kuwait

Risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meat and edible oils: results of a total diet study in South Korea

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) constitute carcinogens. In this study, the risk of PAHs being consumed through meat and edible oils was assessed using a total diet study. Results were monitored by applying the toxic equivalency factor of benzo[a]pyrene; among each category, this factor was highest in grilled beef chitterlings (1.35 μg/kg), grilled Wiener sausages (1.20 μg/kg), fried chicken wings (0.70 μg/kg), and stir-fried perilla oil (1.29 μg/kg). The chronic daily intake was calculated, and risk characterization was estimated by applying the margin of exposure using the benchmark dose approach. Most samples analyzed in our study were denoted as having no concern; however, the intake group of stir-fried beef chitterlings, pan-fried pink sausage, deep-fried pork loin, and grilled duck was regarded as possible concern, and grilled chicken was assessed as having low concern. PAH changes must be monitored on a regular basis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01137-5.

Environmental status of an Italian site highly polluted by illegal dumping of industrial wastes: The situation 15 years after the judicial intervention

In 2008 the Italian government classified the Bussi sul Tirino area (Central Italy) as Site of National Interest destined to remediation which, unfortunately, has not yet begun. The decision followed >20 years of illegal dumping of industrial wastes, lasting from 1984 to 2005, that generated the biggest illegal toxic waste disposal site in Europe. The contamination profile of the site was mainly characterized by PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PAHs, chlorinated solvents, Hg, and Pb. Due to the health concern of the population and local authorities, an extensive monitoring and biomonitoring campaign was carried out in 2017-2018, checking the site-specific pollutants in local food (free-range hens' eggs, milk from grazing sheep and goats, wild edible mushrooms, and drinking water), environmental (air and freshwaters) and biological (human urine) matrices. A total of 314 samples were processed, obtaining 3217 analytical data that were compared with regulatory limits, when available, and values reported by international literature. The sum PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs ranged from 0.24 to 3.6 pg TEQ g^-1 fat, and from 0.46 to 8.3 pg TEQ g^-1 fat, respectively in milk in eggs, in line with the maximum levels established by CE Regulations except for an egg sample. As regards PAHs, all our results were lower than the literature data, as well as for Hg and Pb. Outdoor air showed levels of chlorinated solvents ranging from <LOD to 36 μg m^-3, and freshwaters from 0.21 to 2.8 μg L^-1. All drinking water samples resulted compliant with the maximum levels established by the current EU directive. Despite the severe pollution of the illegal dumping site and the remediation not yet carried out, the local environment and the population living in Bussi and surroundings seem not to be affected by significant exposure to the toxics characterizing the landfill.

Pharmacokinetics of [14C]-Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in humans: Impact of Co-Administration of smoked salmon and BaP dietary restriction

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), is a known human carcinogen. In non-smoking adults greater than 95% of BaP exposure is through diet. The carcinogenicity of BaP is utilized by the U.S. EPA to assess relative potency of complex PAH mixtures. PAH relative potency factors (RPFs, BaP = 1) are determined from high dose animal data. We employed accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) to determine pharmacokinetics of [¹⁴C]-BaP in humans following dosing with 46 ng (an order of magnitude lower than human dietary daily exposure and million-fold lower than animal cancer models). To assess the impact of co-administration of food with a complex PAH mixture, humans were dosed with 46 ng of [¹⁴C]-BaP with or without smoked salmon. Subjects were asked to avoid high BaP-containing diets and a 3-day dietary questionnaire given to assess dietary exposure prior to dosing and three days post-dosing with [¹⁴C]-BaP. Co-administration of smoked salmon, containing a complex mixture of PAHs with an RPF of 460 ng BaP_eq, reduced and delayed absorption. Administration of canned commercial salmon, containing very low amounts of PAHs, showed the impacts on pharmacokinetics were not due to high amounts of PAHs but rather a food matrix effect.

Probabilistic estimates of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations in meats and breads applicable to exposure assessments

Random effect meta-regressions were constructed to estimate concentrations of two heterocyclic amines (HCA) and eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in meat and breads. Eighteen HCA studies and nine PAH studies of food concentration were assembled. Concentration was computed for beef, poultry, pork, and seafood, and bread. Fixed effect predictors included cooking time, form of the food, cooking method, interaction between form and cooking method, temperature at which the food was cooked, fuel of the flame source, percentage of fat, and other elements. Meat type was significant to all HCAs but only three of the PAHs. Cooking method or an interaction between cooking method and food form was significant in all the overall models for each compound, and 80% of models created for stratifications of the data based on meat type. Improvement on compilations such as the Computerized Heterocyclic Amines Resource for Research in Epidemiology of Disease (CHARRED) database comes from inclusion of additional studies, PAH compounds, more generalizable food categories, more cooking methods (such as smoking), and addition of seafood. Meta-regression allows parameters to be estimated with separation of between-study heterogeneity, and extrapolation of exposures to more foods. Resulting uncertainty estimates are useful in a probabilistic exposure assessment.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: A Critical Review of Environmental Occurrence and Bioremediation

The degree of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination of environmental matrices has increased over the last several years due to increase in industrial activities. Interest has surrounded the occurrence and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for many decades because they pose a serious threat to the health of humans and ecosystems. The importance of the need for sustainable abatement strategies to alleviate contamination therefore cannot be overemphasised, as daily human activities continue to create pollution from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and impact the natural environment. Globally, attempts have been made to design treatment schemes for the remediation and restoration of contaminated sites. Several techniques and technologies have been proposed and tested over time, the majority of which have significant limitations. This has necessitated research into environmentally friendly and cost-effective clean-up techniques. Bioremediation is an appealing option that has been extensively researched and adopted as it has been proven to be relatively cost-effective, environmentally friendly and is publicly accepted. In this review, the physicochemical properties of some priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as the pathways and mechanisms through which they enter the soil, river systems, drinking water, groundwater and food are succinctly examined. Their effects on human health, other living organisms, the aquatic ecosystem, as well as soil microbiota are also elucidated. The persistence and bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are discussed as well, as they are important factors that influence the rate, efficiency and overall success of remediation. Bioremediation (aerobic and anaerobic), use of biosurfactants and bioreactors, as well as the roles of biofilms in the biological treatment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are also explored.

Factors influencing inhibition of eight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heated meat model system

Studies on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) formation have focused on dynamic studies or research on cooking conditions of meat. This research aimed to elucidate the influence of heating conditions, existence of water, lipid precursors and antioxidants on the formation and inhibition of PAHs in meat model systems by using GC/MS analysis, while mechanisms were evaluated by electron spin resonance (ESR) studies. PAHs formation was more affected by change in temperature than of time. Also, existence of water and antioxidants was an important factor affecting the inhibition of PAHs. In all heated meat model systems the addition of lipid precursors led to significantly increased PAHs (p<0.05).

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Part II, Urine Markers

There has been increasing demand for simple, rapid, highly sensitive, inexpensive yet reliable method for detecting predisposition to cancer. Human biomonitoring of exposure to the largest class of chemical carcinogen, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are rapidly transformed into detectable metabolites (eg, 1-hydroxypyrene), can serve as strong pointers to early detection of predisposition to cancer. Given that any exposure to PAH is assumed to pose a certain risk of cancer, several biomarkers have been employed in biomonitoring these ninth most threatening ranked compounds. They include metabolites in urine, urinary thioethers, urinary mutagenicity, genetoxic end points in lymphocytes, hemoglobin adducts of benzo(a)pyrene, PAH-protein adducts, and PAH-DNA adducts among others. In this chapter, the main focus will be on the urine metabolites since urine samples are easily collected and there is a robust analytical instrument for the determination of their metabolites.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in yogurt samples

The concentrations and distributions of major polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in 20 kinds of yogurt specimens collected from Italian supermarkets using reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with fluorescence detection. The method was validated by determination of recovery percentages, precision (repeatability) and sensitivity (limits of detection) with yogurt samples fortified at 0.25, 0.5 and 1 µg/kg concentration levels. The recovery of 13 PAHs, with the exception of naphthalene and acenaphthene, ranged from 61% to 130% and from 60% to 97% at all the levels for yogurts with low (0.1%) and high (3.9%) fat content, respectively. The method is repeatable with relative standard deviation values <20% for all analytes. The results obtained demonstrate that acenaphthene, fluorantene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and pyrene were found in all samples with a similar distribution, but different content when yogurts with low and high fats were compared.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Italian milk by HPLC with fluorescence detection

The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Italian commercial milk samples is reported. The study was carried out on lactating (cow and goat) and plant (rice, soya, oat) milk. The quantitative determination involved liquid-liquid extraction of PAHs, a pre-concentration and determination by HPLC using a fluorescence detector. The recovery of analytes was in the range of 70-115%. The precision of the method was found to be between 6% and 24%. The detection limit ranged from 0.66 to 33.3 µg l(-1) corresponding to 0.03-1.66 µg kg(-1) milk (wet weight), at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3, depending on the compound. By this procedure, the levels of more volatile PAHs (two to three aromatic rings) were confirmed in 34 commercial milk and three plant milk samples, whereas benzo[a]pyrene was found only in five pasteurised milk samples at a mean concentration of 0.17 µg kg(-1) milk. These results provide evidence that PAH levels are influenced by heat treatments and skimming processes of milk production.

Dietary benzo(a)pyrene intake during pregnancy and birth weight: associations modified by vitamin C intakes in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa)

BACKGROUND

Maternal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) during pregnancy has been associated with reduced fetal growth. However, the role of diet, the main source of PAH exposure among non-smokers, remains uncertain.

OBJECTIVE

To assess associations between maternal exposure to dietary intake of the genotoxic PAH benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P] during pregnancy and birth weight, exploring potential effect modification by dietary intakes of vitamins C, E and A, hypothesized to influence PAH metabolism.

METHODS

This study included 50,651 women in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). Dietary B(a)P and nutrient intakes were estimated based on total consumption obtained from a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and estimated based on food composition data. Data on infant birth weight were obtained from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway (MBRN). Multivariate regression was used to assess associations between dietary B(a)P and birth weight, evaluating potential interactions with candidate nutrients.

RESULTS

The multivariate-adjusted coefficient (95%CI) for birth weight associated with maternal energy-adjusted B(a)P intake was -20.5g (-31.1, -10.0) in women in the third compared with the first tertile of B(a)P intake. Results were similar after excluding smokers. Significant interactions were found between elevated intakes of vitamin C (>85mg/day) and dietary B(a)P during pregnancy for birth weight (P<0.05), but no interactions were found with other vitamins. The multivariate-adjusted coefficients (95%CI) for birth weight in women in the third compared with the first tertile of B(a)P intake were -44.4g (-76.5, -12.3) in the group with low vitamin C intakes vs. -17.6g (-29.0, -6.1) in the high vitamin C intake group.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that higher prenatal exposure to dietary B(a)P may reduce birth weight. Lowering maternal intake of B(a)P and increasing dietary vitamin C intake during pregnancy may help to reduce any adverse effects of B(a)P on birth weight.

Dietary benzo(a)pyrene and fetal growth: effect modification by vitamin C intake and glutathione S-transferase P1 polymorphism

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have reported maternal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), as well as DNA adducts reflecting total PAH exposure, to be associated with reduced fetal growth. The role of diet, the main source of PAH exposure among non-smokers, remains uncertain.

OBJECTIVE

To assess associations between birth weight, length and small size for gestational age (SGA) with maternal intakes of the genotoxic PAH benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P] during pregnancy, exploring potential effect modification by dietary intakes of vitamin C, vitamin E, alpha- and beta-carotene, as well as glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) polymorphisms, hypothesized to influence PAH metabolism.

METHODS

657 women in the INMA (Environment and Childhood) Project from Sabadell (Barcelona) were recruited during the first trimester of pregnancy. Dietary B(a)P and nutrient intakes were estimated from food consumption data. Genotyping was conducted for the Ile105Val variant of GSTP1. Multivariable models were used to assess associations between size at birth and dietary B(a)P, evaluating potential interactions with candidate nutrients and GSTP1 variants.

RESULTS

There were significant interactions between elevated intakes of vitamin C (above the mean of 189.41 mg/day) and dietary B(a)P during the first trimester of pregnancy in models for birth weight and length (P<0.05), but no interactions were found with other nutrients. B(a)P intakes were associated with significant reductions in birth weight and length (coefficient±SE for a 1-SD increase in B(a)P: -101.63±34.62 g and -0.38±0.16 cm, respectively) among women with low, but not high, vitamin C intakes. Elevated dietary B(a)P was also associated with increased risk of SGA births among women with low dietary vitamin C. Among these women, associations were strongest in those carrying the GSTP1 Val allele, associated with lower contaminant detoxification activity.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that dietary B(a)P exposure may impair fetal growth, particularly in genetically susceptible populations, and that increasing maternal intakes of vitamin C may help to reduce any adverse effects.

Smoking during pregnancy is associated with higher dietary intake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and poor diet quality

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the dietary intake of total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), and to characterise factors associated with higher intake during pregnancy. Recent studies suggest that prenatal exposure to PAH is associated with adverse reproductive outcomes. Other than tobacco smoke and occupational exposures, diet is the main source of human PAH exposure.

DESIGN

Prospective birth cohort study. Dietary exposure to total PAH and BaP was calculated combining food consumption data and estimated PAH concentrations in foods. One-way ANOVA was used to assess differences in intake among non-smokers, passive or active smokers. Linear regression was used to assess factors related to higher intake, and associations between dietary PAH and birth weight.

SETTING

Sabadell, Spain, 2004-2006.

SUBJECTS

Women (n 657) recruited during the first trimester of pregnancy.

RESULTS

The mean dietary intake of BaP and total PAH was significantly higher among active (0·199 and 10·207 μg/d, respectively) and passive smokers (0·196 and 9·458 μg/d) than among non-smokers (0·181 and 8·757 μg/d; P value < 0·005). Maternal age, educational level and region of origin were also associated with higher BaP intake. In all women, major contributors to PAH intake were processed/cured meats, cereals/potatoes and shellfish. Elevated first trimester dietary BaP was associated with a significant reduction in birth weight (fourth v. first quartile: β = -142·73 g, P value < 0·05).

CONCLUSIONS

Active and passive smokers had higher dietary PAH exposure during pregnancy because of higher intake of processed meats and shellfish. As tobacco smoke is an additional route of PAH exposure, the added dietary burden in these women is of concern.

Determination of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in milk and related products using solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

A method for the determination of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in milk and related products based on direct immersion-solid phase microextraction (DI-SPME) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry detection (GC-MS) has been developed. The influence of various parameters on PAH extraction efficiency was carefully monitored. Good performance (recovery, precision and quantitation limits) was attained when a PDMS/DVB fiber was immersed in the sample for 60 min at 55 degrees C. Detection limits ranged from 0.003 to 1.5 microg L(-1) at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3, depending on the compound and the sample. The proposed method was successfully applied to infant formulas, milk and related products and the presence of both fluoranthene and pyrene in two samples was confirmed.

Bioavailability and risk assessment of orally ingested polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a family of toxicants that are ubiquitous in the environment. These contaminants generate considerable interest, because some of them are highly carcinogenic in laboratory animals and have been implicated in breast, lung, and colon cancers in humans. These chemicals commonly enter the human body through inhalation of cigarette smoke or consumption of contaminated food. Of these two pathways, dietary intake of PAHs constitutes a major source of exposure in humans. Although many reviews and books on PAHs have been published, factors affecting the accumulation of PAHs in the diet, their absorption following ingestion, and strategies to assess risk from exposure to these hydrocarbons following ingestion have received much less attention. This review, therefore, focuses on concentrations of PAHs in widely consumed dietary ingredients along with gastrointestinal absorption rates in humans. Metabolism and bioavailability of PAHs in animal models and the processes, which influence the disposition of these chemicals, are discussed. The utilitarian value of structure and metabolism in predicting PAH toxicity and carcinogenesis is also emphasized. Finally, based on intake, disposition, and tumorigenesis data, the exposure risk to PAHs from diet, and contaminated soil is presented. This information is expected to provide a framework for refinements in risk assessment of PAHs from a multimedia exposure perspective.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coffee brew using solid-phase extraction

The presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coffee has been reported and is suspected to be due to the degradation of coffee compounds during the roasting step. Due to the high toxicity of these compounds, among which benzo[a]pyrene is known to be the most carcinogenic, their presence in the coffee, especially the coffee brew that is directly ingested by the consumer, is of prime importance. However, due to the low solubility of these compounds, their concentrations are expected to be rather low. As a consequence, reliable and sensitive analytical methods are required. The aim of this study was to develop a reliable and fast analytical procedure to determine these organic micropollutants in coffee brew samples. PAHs were retained on a 0.5 g polystyrene-divinylbenzene cartridge before being eluted by a mixture of methanol/tetrahydrofuran (10:90 v/v), concentrated, and directly analyzed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a fluorescence detector. Application to the determination of PAHs in several coffee brew samples is also given, with mean estimated concentrations in the range of 0-100 ng L(-1) for suspected benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene, whereas no fluoranthene could be detected. Tentative identification was made on the basis of UV spectra. However, identification of the suspected traces of PAHs could not be achieved due to matrix effects, so that the presence of coeluting compounds may not be excluded.

Application of matrix solid-phase dispersion in the determination of dibenzo[a,l]pyrene content of experimental animal diets used in a large-scale tumor study

A method utilizing matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) was developed for isolation and determination of dibenzo[a,l]pyrene (DBP) in experimental rainbow-trout diets used in a large-scale carcinogenesis study. A 0.5 g sample of moist ration containing 0-225 ppm DBP (dry basis) was mixed with 2 g C18 sorbent and benzo[a]pyrene internal standard was added to the mixture. Extraction and clean-up were accomplished in a single step by extracting the sample mixture with hexane-benzene 4:1 from a cartridge containing 2 g Florisil. DBP was quantified by HPLC on a C5 bonded phase column with fluorescence detection. Mean analytical recovery of DBP from control diet spiked at three concentration levels was 101 to 107% with relative standard deviations of 1 to 7%. The limit of detection of DBP was equivalent to 0.014 ppm in the ration. Application of the method to verification of DBP levels in trout rations from the carcinogenesis study is described. Control ration (0 ppm DBP) was screened for possible DBP contamination and none was found. This is the first report on analysis of DBP in experimental animal diets.

Development of a metabolism factor for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for use in multipathway risk assessments of hazardous waste combustion facilities

As a state authorized to permit hazardous waste combustion facilities, the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC) has conducted several site-specific, multipathway risk assessments in support of permitting actions. These risk assessments were carried out in accordance with guidance provided in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities, Peer Review Draft (HHRAP). This protocol uses a prospective, screening-level, risk assessment paradigm and incorporates conservative default assumptions. In conducting such risk assessments, staff of the Toxicology and Risk Assessment Section have found that modeled emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at concentrations near or below detectable levels can produce unacceptable risk in the "farmer" exposure scenario. In accordance with recommendations in HHRAP, the TNRCC followed a tiered approach, whereby additional site-specific information is incorporated in place of standard default assumptions in cases where the initial screening-level risk assessment yielded unacceptable risk or hazard. Sensitivity analyses indicated that one of the key parameters affecting the risk estimates for PAHs in the farmer exposure scenario was the way in which PAHs were modeled up through the food chain. Therefore, refinement of the model focused on the development of a PAH-specific metabolism factor, as described in the article.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the diet

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), of which benzo[a]pyrene is the most commonly studied and measured, are formed by the incomplete combustion of organic matter. They are widely distributed in the environment and human exposure to them is unavoidable. A number of them, such as benzo[a]pyrene, are carcinogenic and mutagenic, and they are widely believed to make a substantial contribution to the overall burden of cancer in humans. Their presence in the environment is reflected in their presence at detectable levels in many types of uncooked food. In addition, cooking processes can generate PAHs in food. PAHs can also be formed during the curing and processing of raw food prior to cooking. Several studies have been carried out to determine the levels of exposure to PAHs from representative human diets, and the proportion of the overall burden of environmental exposure to PAHs that is attributable to the diet. In most cases, it is concluded that diet is the major source of human exposure to PAHs. The major dietary sources of PAHs are cereals and vegetables, rather than meat, except where there is high consumption of meat cooked over an open flame. More recently, biomonitoring procedures have been developed to assess human exposure to PAHs and these have also indicated that diet is a major source of exposure. Exposure to nitro-PAHs through food consumption appears to be very low.