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Ritchie MB, Compton SAH, Oliver LD, Finger E, Neufeld RWJ, Mitchell DGV. The impact of acute violent videogame exposure on neurocognitive markers of empathic concern. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2024; 19:nsae031. [PMID: 38727544 PMCID: PMC11223611 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsae031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Research examining the purported association between violent gaming and aggression remains controversial due to concerns related to methodology, unclear neurocognitive mechanisms, and the failure to adequately consider the role of individual differences in susceptibility. To help address these concerns, we used fMRI and an emotional empathy task to examine whether acute and cumulative violent gaming exposure were associated with abnormalities in emotional empathy as a function of trait-empathy. Emotional empathy was targeted given its involvement in regulating not only aggression, but also other important social functions such as compassion and prosocial behaviour. We hypothesized that violent gaming exposure increases the risk of aberrant social behaviour by altering the aversive value of distress cues. Contrary to expectations, neither behavioural ratings nor empathy-related brain activity varied as a function of violent gaming exposure. Notably, however, activation patterns in somatosensory and motor cortices reflected an interaction between violent gaming exposure and trait empathy. Thus, our results are inconsistent with a straightforward relationship between violent gaming exposure and reduced empathy. Furthermore, they highlight the importance of considering both individual differences in susceptibility and other aspects of cognition related to social functioning to best inform public concern regarding safe gaming practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary B Ritchie
- Graduate Program in Clinical Science and Psychopathology, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Shannon A H Compton
- Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Lindsay D Oliver
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5R0A3, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Finger
- Robarts Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Department of Clinical Neurological Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON N6C 2R5, Canada
- Parkwood Institute, St. Joseph’s Health Care, London, ON N6C 0A7, Canada
| | - Richard W J Neufeld
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Science, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Derek G V Mitchell
- Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Science, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
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2
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Stuit SM, Paffen CLE, Van der Stigchel S. Prioritization of emotional faces is not driven by emotional content. Sci Rep 2023; 13:549. [PMID: 36631453 PMCID: PMC9834315 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25575-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Emotional faces have prioritized access to visual awareness. However, studies concerned with what expressions are prioritized most are inconsistent and the source of prioritization remains elusive. Here we tested the predictive value of spatial frequency-based image-features and emotional content, the sub-part of the image content that signals the emotional expression of the actor in the image as opposed to the image content irrelevant for the emotional expression, for prioritization for awareness. Participants reported which of two faces (displaying a combination of angry, happy, and neutral expressions), that were temporarily suppressed from awareness, was perceived first. Even though the results show that happy expressions were prioritized for awareness, this prioritization was driven by the contrast energy of the images. In fact, emotional content could not predict prioritization at all. Our findings show that the source of prioritization for awareness is not the information carrying the emotional content. We argue that the methods used here, or similar approaches, should become standard practice to break the chain of inconsistent findings regarding emotional superiority effects that have been part of the field for decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sjoerd M. Stuit
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Chris L. E. Paffen
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Van der Stigchel
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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3
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Prochazkova E, Venneker D, de Zwart R, Tamietto M, Kret ME. Conscious awareness is necessary to assess trust and mimic facial expressions, while pupils impact trust unconsciously. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210183. [PMID: 36126669 PMCID: PMC9489300 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
People make rapid inferences about others' thoughts and intentions. For example, they observe facial movements and pupil size of others and unwittingly make use of this information when deciding whether to trust someone or not. However, whether spontaneous mimicry depends on visual awareness of the stimulus and whether these processes underlie trust decisions is still unknown. To investigate whether visual awareness modulates the relationship between emotional expressions, mimicry and trust, participants played a series of trust games and saw either their partners' faces with a neutral, happy or fearful expression, or their partners' eyes in which the pupil size was large, medium or small. Subjects' trust investments, facial movements and pupil responses were measured. In half of the trials, the stimuli were rendered invisible by continuous flash suppression. Results showed that facial expressions were mimicked and influenced trust decisions during the conscious condition, but not during the unconscious (suppressed) condition. The opposite was found for pupil size, which influenced trust decisions during states of unawareness. These results suggest that the neurobiological pathway linking the observation of facial expressions to mimicry and trust is predominantly conscious, whereas partner pupil size influences trust primarily when presented unconsciously. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cracking the laugh code: laughter through the lens of biology, psychology and neuroscience'.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Prochazkova
- Institute of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology Unit, Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Albinusdreef 2, Leiden 2300 RC, The Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Albinusdreef 2, Leiden 2300 RC, The Netherlands
| | - D Venneker
- Leiden Institute For Brain and Cognition, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - R de Zwart
- Institute of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology Unit, Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Albinusdreef 2, Leiden 2300 RC, The Netherlands
| | - M Tamietto
- Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, and CoRPS - Center of Research on Psychology in Somatic diseases - Tilburg University, PO Box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, University of Torino, Via G. Verdi 10, 10124, Torino, Italy
| | - M E Kret
- Institute of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology Unit, Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Albinusdreef 2, Leiden 2300 RC, The Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Albinusdreef 2, Leiden 2300 RC, The Netherlands
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4
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Caruana N, Seymour K. Bottom-up processing of fearful and angry facial expressions is intact in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2021; 26:183-198. [PMID: 33752551 DOI: 10.1080/13546805.2021.1902794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Judgments of emotion from faces are reportedly impaired in schizophrenia. However, it is unclear whether this is due to a top-down cognitive deficit in evaluating sensory information or a fundamental bottom-up perturbation in the early stages of face encoding. This study examined whether deficits in emotion processing reflect imprecision in the initial preconscious registration of emotional face expressions within the visual system. METHODS Using continuous flash suppression (CFS), we presented participants (18 patients with schizophrenia, 8M/10F; 20 healthy controls, 13M/7F) with fearful and angry faces. Previous CFS research on healthy participants reveals that fearful facial expressions gain privileged access to awareness over angry faces-demonstrating the visual system's ability to discriminate these emotions at a preconscious level. We used this same approach to probe the integrity of early emotion encoding whilst minimising the potential contribution of any top-down cognitive biases on perceptual judgments. RESULTS In both groups, fearful faces were perceived faster than angry faces, with no differences observed between patients and controls. CONCLUSIONS Emotion processing difficulties in schizophrenia are unlikely to reflect an early sensory deficit, but rather a deficit in social cognition that has a top-down impact on the conscious evaluation of facial expressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Caruana
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.,Perception in Action Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Kiley Seymour
- School of Psychology, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia.,The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia.,Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany
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Turano MT, Giganti F, Gavazzi G, Lamberto S, Gronchi G, Giovannelli F, Peru A, Viggiano MP. Spatially Filtered Emotional Faces Dominate during Binocular Rivalry. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10120998. [PMID: 33348612 PMCID: PMC7767193 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10120998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present investigation explores the role of bottom-up and top-down factors in the recognition of emotional facial expressions during binocular rivalry. We manipulated spatial frequencies (SF) and emotive features and asked subjects to indicate whether the emotional or the neutral expression was dominant during binocular rivalry. Controlling the bottom-up saliency with a computational model, physically comparable happy and fearful faces were presented dichoptically with neutral faces. The results showed the dominance of emotional faces over neutral ones. In particular, happy faces were reported more frequently as the first dominant percept even in the presence of coarse information (at a low SF level: 2-6 cycle/degree). Following current theories of emotion processing, the results provide further support for the influence of positive compared to negative meaning on binocular rivalry and, for the first time, showed that individuals perceive the affective quality of happiness even in the absence of details in the visual display. Furthermore, our findings represent an advance in knowledge regarding the association between the high- and low-level mechanisms behind binocular rivalry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Turano
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
- Fondazione Turano Onlus, 00195 Roma, Italy
| | - Fiorenza Giganti
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Gioele Gavazzi
- Diagnostic and Nuclear Research Institute, IRCCS SDN, 80121 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Simone Lamberto
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Giorgio Gronchi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Fabio Giovannelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Andrea Peru
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
| | - Maria Pia Viggiano
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child’s Health, University of Florence, 50100 Florence, Italy; (M.T.T.); (F.G.); (S.L.); (G.G.); (F.G.); (A.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0552755053
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6
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Caruana N, Inkley C, Zein ME, Seymour K. No influence of eye gaze on emotional face processing in the absence of conscious awareness. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16198. [PMID: 31700080 PMCID: PMC6838103 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52728-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The human brain has evolved specialised mechanisms to enable the rapid detection of threat cues, including emotional face expressions (e.g., fear and anger). However, contextual cues - such as gaze direction - influence the ability to recognise emotional expressions. For instance, anger paired with direct gaze, and fear paired with averted gaze are more accurately recognised compared to alternate conjunctions of these features. It is argued that this is because gaze direction conveys the relevance and locus of the threat to the observer. Here, we used continuous flash suppression (CFS) to assess whether the modulatory effect of gaze direction on emotional face processing occurs outside of conscious awareness. Previous research using CFS has demonstrated that fearful facial expressions are prioritised by the visual system and gain privileged access to awareness over other expressed emotions. We hypothesised that if the modulatory effects of gaze on emotional face processing occur also at this level, then the gaze-emotion conjunctions signalling self-relevant threat will reach awareness faster than those that do not. We report that fearful faces gain privileged access to awareness over angry faces, but that gaze direction does not modulate this effect. Thus, our findings suggest that previously reported effects of gaze direction on emotional face processing are likely to occur once the face is detected, where the self-relevance and locus of the threat can be consciously appraised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Caruana
- Perception in Action Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Christine Inkley
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Marwa El Zein
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kiley Seymour
- School of Psychology, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia
- The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia
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7
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Enhanced conscious processing and blindsight-like detection of fear-conditioned stimuli under continuous flash suppression. Exp Brain Res 2017; 235:3333-3344. [PMID: 28815269 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-017-5064-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Emotional information, and specifically fear-related stimuli, have been shown to be preferentially processed at a nonconscious level and gain privileged access to awareness. However, recent evidence has emerged suggesting these findings are explained by low-level visual features rather than emotional salience. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that emotional salience increases both blindsight (i.e., detection with reduced awareness) and awareness of visually suppressed stimuli. We used fear conditioning to manipulate the emotional significance of neutral expressions presented under Continuous Flash Suppression. Fifty-two healthy participants were presented with perithreshold neutral faces, previously paired with an electric shock (CS+) or not (CS-), and asked to localise the quadrant wherein faces were presented and rate their level of confidence in the response. Results showed fear conditioning strength (indexed by skin conductance response to CS+ versus CS-) was positively associated with both increased "blindsight" and awareness of conditioned stimuli. These findings suggest emotional significance alone, and not merely low-level visual differences, can enhance pre-conscious and conscious processing of visual stimuli.
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8
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Choice of analysis pathway dramatically affects statistical outcomes in breaking continuous flash suppression. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3002. [PMID: 28592830 PMCID: PMC5462748 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-03396-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Breaking Continuous Flash Suppression (bCFS) has been adopted as an appealing means to study human visual awareness, but the literature is beclouded by inconsistent and contradictory results. Although previous reviews have focused chiefly on design pitfalls and instances of false reasoning, we show in this study that the choice of analysis pathway can have severe effects on the statistical output when applied to bCFS data. Using a representative dataset designed to address a specific controversy in the realm of language processing under bCFS, namely whether psycholinguistic variables affect access to awareness, we present a range of analysis methods based on real instances in the published literature, and indicate how each approach affects the perceived outcome. We provide a summary of published bCFS studies indicating the use of data transformation and trimming, and highlight that more compelling analysis methods are sparsely used in this field. We discuss potential interpretations based on both classical and more complex analyses, to highlight how these differ. We conclude that an adherence to openly available data and analysis pathways could provide a great benefit to this field, so that conclusions can be tested against multiple analyses as standard practices are updated.
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9
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Vieira JB, Tavares TP, Marsh AA, Mitchell DGV. Emotion and personal space: Neural correlates of approach-avoidance tendencies to different facial expressions as a function of coldhearted psychopathic traits. Hum Brain Mapp 2016; 38:1492-1506. [PMID: 27859920 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In social interactions, humans are expected to regulate interpersonal distance in response to the emotion displayed by others. Yet, the neural mechanisms implicated in approach-avoidance tendencies to distinct emotional expressions have not been fully described. Here, we investigated the neural systems implicated in regulating the distance to different emotions, and how they vary as a function of empathy. Twenty-three healthy participants assessed for psychopathic traits underwent fMRI scanning while they viewed approaching and withdrawing angry, fearful, happy, sad and neutral faces. Participants were also asked to set the distance to those faces on a computer screen, and to adjust the physical distance from the experimenter outside the scanner. Participants kept the greatest distances from angry faces, and shortest from happy expressions. This was accompanied by increased activation in the dorsomedial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices, inferior frontal gyrus, and temporoparietal junction for angry and happy expressions relative to the other emotions. Irrespective of emotion, longer distances were kept from approaching faces, which was associated with increased activation in the amygdala and insula, as well as parietal and prefrontal regions. Amygdala activation was positively correlated with greater preferred distances to angry, fearful and sad expressions. Moreover, participants scoring higher on coldhearted psychopathic traits (lower empathy) showed reduced amygdala activation to sad expressions. These findings elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying social approach-avoidance, and how they are related to variations in empathy. Hum Brain Mapp 38:1492-1506, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana B Vieira
- Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tamara P Tavares
- Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Abigail A Marsh
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Derek G V Mitchell
- Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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10
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Tavares TP, Logie K, Mitchell DGV. Opposing effects of perceptual versus working memory load on emotional distraction. Exp Brain Res 2016; 234:2945-56. [PMID: 27329606 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-016-4697-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Throughout our day-to-day activities, we are subjected to numerous stimuli that compete for our attention; consequently, we must prioritize stimuli for further processing and influence over behaviour. Previous research has demonstrated that the extent to which task-irrelevant distractors are processed is mediated by the nature of the cognitive task, and the level of processing load. Importantly though, the interaction between cognitive task, processing load, and emotional distractor processing remains unclear. This is a particularly important question given the unique ways that emotion interacts with attention, and the fact that some other forms of processing load have been shown to reduce emotional distractor encoding. In the present study, participants were presented with emotional distractors during a perceptual and working memory task, under varying levels of load. In Experiment 1, we showed that the impact of emotional distractors on behaviour was reduced under conditions of high relative to low perceptual load. However, in sharp contrast, high working memory load was associated with increased emotional distraction. Importantly, these results were replicated in Experiment 2. Overall, the impact of processing load on emotional distraction varies according to the cognitive function being performed. These results raise the intriguing possibility that working memory operations deplete some of the cognitive resources needed to control the impact of emotion on behaviour. The findings, therefore, may have important implications for clinical populations featuring cognitive dysfunction and emotional dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara P Tavares
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
- The Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Kyle Logie
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Derek G V Mitchell
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
- The Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada.
- Departments of Psychiatry, Anatomy and Cell Biology, and Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
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