Effects of acute exercise on long-term memory

Exercise and Acute Cognitive Enhancement

Substantial research has explored the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. Meta-analytic reviews provide summary statistics relative to these effects when the cognitive task is performed while exercising and when performed after exercise. When performed concomitantly the effects of exercise are typically small or negative with the exception of moderate effects for speed of cognitive performance during moderate intensity exercise. When cognitive performance is assessed following the cessation of exercise, the effects are typically positive. When considering the effects following exercise, most studies have focused on executive function and episodic memory as the cognitive outcomes of interest with meta-analyses supporting small-to-moderate benefits. When potential moderators related to exercise parameters or participants characteristics are examined, results suggest that 20 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity exercise consistently benefits performance with larger effects evident for executive function tasks with higher cognitive demands, for long-term memory tasks when exercise is performed prior to information encoding, and when considering individuals with lower initial cognitive performance levels. These observed benefits are likely due to the impacts acute exercise can have on physiological arousal, brain function, and brain neurotrophic factors. Advancements in our understanding of the potential of a single session of exercise to benefit cognitive performance are important for exercise prescription and to inform chronic exercise programs designed to benefit cognition.

Micro-consolidation occurs when learning an implicit motor sequence, but is not influenced by HIIT exercise

We investigated if micro-consolidation, a phenomenon recently discovered during the brief rest periods between practice when learning an explicit motor sequence, generalises to learning an implicit motor sequence task. We demonstrate micro-consolidation occurs in the absence of explicit sequence awareness. We also investigated the effect of a preceding bout of high-intensity exercise, as exercise is known to augment the consolidation of new motor skills. Micro-consolidation was not modified by exercise.

Moderate-to-vigorous intensity cycling exercise immediately after visual learning enhances delayed recognition memory performance

A single bout of acute aerobic exercise has been shown to improve long-term memory, though it is unclear if exercise before learning or after learning is optimal for memory enhancement. Although some research has demonstrated that exercise before learning is ideal, investigations have consistently shown that acute arousal post-learning is a powerful memory enhancer. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of self-perceived hard cycling before or after learning on recognition memory for emotional and neutral images, and examine the relationship between central noradrenergic activity and memory performance. Seventy-two males and females (18-35 years of age) participated in this between-subjects study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: exercise before learning, exercise after learning, and control. Participants in the exercise groups engaged in 20 min of cycling at a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of 15 ("hard") on the Borg RPE scale before or after viewing a series of 90 pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral images (30 each). Participants in the control group engaged in no exercise before or after image viewing. At several time points throughout the experiment, saliva was collected to measure salivary alpha amylase (sAA), a marker of central noradrenergic activity. One-week later, recognition memory was assessed where participants viewed 180 images (90 new) and had to identify which images were previously viewed. Participants in the exercise after learning group had significantly higher recognition memory compared to the control group, but this was not seen with exercise before learning. sAA was not correlated with memory in any group, though it did increase during exercise. These results demonstrate that acute self-perceived hard cycling post-learning, but not pre-learning, improves recognition memory, though this was unrelated to the exercise-induced increase in central noradrenergic activity as measured in saliva.

The effects of a single bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on visuomotor adaptation and its savings

Performing exercise before or after motor skill learning is thought to have a positive impact on acquisition and retention of motor memories stored in our nervous system. It has been shown that performing 25 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise prior to visuomotor adaptation can enhance both visuomotor adaptation and its retention compared to 25 min of rest before the adaptation. To determine whether a single bout of aerobic exercise could actually facilitate the formation of a neural representation associated with a novel visuomotor condition, we examined aftereffects and savings associated with a visuomotor adaptation task following either an exercise or a rest condition. Sixteen healthy young individuals (18-35 years) first experienced 25 min of moderate-intensity cycling or rest, and then adapted to a 30-degree visuomotor rotation condition. Immediately following that, participants experienced a washout session, which was followed by a readaptation session. Results indicated that all subjects adapted to the visuomotor rotation completely, although no difference was found between the cycling and rest conditions. Aftereffects and savings were also observed in both conditions, but with no difference between the conditions. These findings suggest that compared to a short rest session, a single bout of moderate-intensity cycling may not have a greater impact for enhancing visuomotor adaptation and its retention. Further research is needed, in which the effects of certain factors such as exercise intensity, duration and timing are more systematically investigated.

The Effects of Acute Resistance Exercise on Memory, Processing Speed, and Mood State After a Cognitive Challenge

ABSTRACT

Venezia, AC, Barney, P, Spagnoli, D, Greco-Hiranaka, C, Piepmeier, AT, Smith, JC, and Weiss, LR. The effects of acute resistance exercise on memory, processing speed, and mood state after a cognitive challenge. J Strength Cond Res 37(9): 1738-1745, 2023-Acute moderate-to-vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise has been shown to improve learning and memory, but the effectiveness of acute high-intensity resistance exercise for improving memory is not fully understood. Like acute aerobic exercise, acute resistance exercise increases arousal and circulating catecholamines, mechanisms suggested to mediate the memory-enhancing effects of acute exercise. Furthermore, although acute exercise has been shown to benefit mood state, it is unknown if high-intensity resistance exercise positively influences mood state after a cognitive challenge. In this within-subjects design, subjects (18- to 25-year-old men) completed an approximately 40-minute session of resistance exercise or seated rest. Immediately after, the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (ANAM) Code Substitution (CS)-Learning, CS-Immediate Recognition, and CS-Delayed Recognition tasks were completed, followed by the ANAM Mood Scale. There were no significant effects of exercise on recognition memory; however, CS-Learning (attention and processing speed) was better after resistance exercise ( p = 0.03). After the cognitive challenge, restlessness ( p < 0.001), vigor ( p = 0.03), and depression ( p = 0.047) scores were higher after resistance exercise compared with rest; however, after false discovery rate correction, only restlessness remained significantly different between sessions ( q = 0.002), whereas vigor ( q = 0.09) and depression ( q = 0.09) did not. These results suggest that an acute bout of resistance exercise improves attention and processing speed, although it does not improve recognition memory and has mixed effects on mood state in college-aged men.

Implications of Physical Exercise on Episodic Memory and Anxiety: The Role of the Serotonergic System

There is a growing interest in investigating the effects of physical exercise on cognitive performance, particularly episodic memory. Similarly, an increasing number of studies in recent decades have studied the effects of physical activity on mood and anxiety disorders. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has raised awareness of the importance of regular physical activity for both mental and physical health. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms underlying these effects are not fully understood. Interestingly, recent findings suggest that the serotonergic system may play a key role in mediating the effects of physical exercise on episodic memory and anxiety. In this review, we discuss the impact of physical exercise on both episodic memory and anxiety in human and animal models. In addition, we explore the accumulating evidence that supports a role for the serotonergic system in the effects of physical exercise on episodic memory and anxiety.

Effects of acute aerobic exercise on mnemonic discrimination performance in older adults

OBJECTIVES

Ample evidence suggests exercise is beneficial for hippocampal function. Furthermore, a single session of aerobic exercise provides immediate benefits to mnemonic discrimination performance, a highly hippocampal-specific memory process, in healthy younger adults. However, it is unknown if a single session of aerobic exercise alters mnemonic discrimination in older adults, who generally exhibit greater hippocampal deterioration and deficits in mnemonic discrimination performance.

METHODS

We conducted a within subject acute exercise study in 30 cognitively healthy and physically active older adults who underwent baseline testing and then completed two experimental visits in which they performed a mnemonic discrimination task before and after either 30 min of cycling exercise or 30 min of seated rest. Linear mixed-effects analyses were conducted in which condition order and age were controlled, time (pre vs. post) and condition (exercise vs. rest) were modeled as fixed effects, and subject as a random effect.

RESULTS

No significant time by condition interaction effect was found for object recognition (p = .254, η2=.01), while a significant reduction in interference was found for mnemonic discrimination performance following the exercise condition (p = .012, η2=.07). A post-intervention only analysis indicated that there was no difference between condition for object recognition (p = .186, η2=.06), but that participants had better mnemonic discrimination performance (p < .001, η2=.22) following the exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a single session of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise may reduce interference and elicit better mnemonic discrimination performance in healthy older adults, suggesting benefits for hippocampal-specific memory function.

Brain Health Indicators Following Acute Neuro-Exergaming: Biomarker and Cognition in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) after Pedal-n-Play (iPACES)

Facing an unrelenting rise in dementia cases worldwide, researchers are exploring non-pharmacological ways to ameliorate cognitive decline in later life. Twenty older adults completed assessments before and after a single bout of interactive physical and cognitive exercise, by playing a neuro-exergame that required pedaling and steering to control progress in a tablet-based video game tailored to impact executive function (the interactive Physical and Cognitive Exercise System; iPACES v2). This study explored the cognitive and biomarker outcomes for participants with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and normative older adults after 20 min of pedal-to-play exercise. Neuropsychological and salivary assessments were performed pre- and post-exercise to assess the impact. Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed significant interaction effects, with MCI participants experiencing greater changes in executive function and alpha-amylase levels than normative older adults; within-group changes were also significant. This study provides further data regarding cognitive effects and potential mechanisms of action for exercise as an intervention for MCI.

Acute and chronic physical activity improves spatial memory in an immersive virtual reality task

Physical activity benefits both fitness and cognition. However, its effect on long-term memory is unclear. In this study, we evaluated the effect of acute and chronic exercise on long-term spatial memory for a new virtual reality task. Participants were immersed in the virtual environment and navigated a wide arena that included target objects. We assessed spatial memory in two conditions (encoded targets separated by a short or long distance) and found that 25 min of cycling after encoding - but not before retrieval - was sufficient to improve the long-term memory retention for the short, but not for the long distance. Furthermore, we found that participants who engaged in regular physical activity showed memory for the short-distance condition whereas controls did not. Thus, physical activity could be a simple way to improve spatial memories.

Effects of computer-based cognitive training combined with physical training for older adults with cognitive impairment: A four-arm randomized controlled trial

Objective

Combined physical (PHY) and cognitive (COG) training in sequential (SEQ) and simultaneous (SIMUL) sessions may delay the progression of cognitive impairment. To date, no study has directly compared in older adults with cognitive impairment the effects of COG training, PHY training, SEQ motor-cognitive training and SIMUL motor-cognitve training on specific indices of cognitive performance and activities of daily living (ADL). The purpose of this study was to determine whether SEQ and SIMUL motor-cognitive training can improve treatment outcomes compared with PHY or COG training alone. We also aimed to compare the effects of SEQ versus SIMUL motor-cognitive training on cognitive functions and instrumental ADL (IADL) in older adults with cognitive impairment.

Methods

A cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted. Eighty older adults with cognitive impairment were randomly assigned to COG, PHY, SEQ or SIMUL training groups. The intervention consisted of 90-min training sessions, totaling 36 sessions. Outcome measures were the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, three subtests of the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) and the Lawton IADL scale.

Results

Significant interaction effects between group and time were found in WMS-spatial span (p = 0.04) and WMS-word lists (p = 0.041). For WMS-spatial span, the SIMUL group showed outperformed the COG (p = 0.039), PHY (p = 0.010) and SEQ groups (p = 0.017). For WMS-word lists, the SEQ group improve more than COG (p = 0.013), PHY (p = 0.030) and SIMUL (p = 0.019) groups. No significant differences were found in IADL performance among four groups (p = 0.645).

Conclusions

Our study showed SEQ and SIMUL motor-cognitive training led to more pronounced improvements in visuospatial working memory or verbal memory compared with isolated COG or PHY training for community-based older adults with cognitive impairment. For enhancing effects on IADL, we suggest the use of sensitive measurement tools and context-enriched cognitive training involving real-life task demands.

The effects of physical activity timing and complexity on episodic memory: A randomized controlled trial

The role of two types of acute physical activity (PA) bouts were assessed on young adults' free-recall and recognition memory in two experiments, which differed in the temporal relation of PA and word encoding. Before or following training on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task, participants performed a simple two-step dance, a complex four-step dance, or remained seated. Hypotheses proposed that PA prior to encoding and complex PA would enhance PA's mnemonic benefits. Memory assessed post-PA, 24 h, and 7 days after training indicated that timing and complexity of PA did not impact free-recall or recognition memory. Findings differ from a previous study showing complex PA benefited motor learning more than simple PA (Tomporowski & Pendleton, 2018). The inconsistency may be due to different working memory processes underlying consolidation and retrieval of procedural or episodic information. Theory-based explanations regarding memory storage and retrieval are proposed to elucidate this selective process.

Effects of acute exercise on memory: Considerations of exercise intensity, post-exercise recovery period and aerobic endurance

Accumulating research demonstrates that acute exercise can enhance long-term episodic memory. However, it is unclear if there is an intensity-specific effect of acute exercise on long-term episodic memory function and whether this is influenced by the post-exercise recovery period, which was the primary objective of this experiment. Another uncertainty in the literature is whether aerobic endurance influences the interaction between exercise intensity and post-exercise recovery period on long-term episodic memory function, which was a secondary objective of this study. With exercise intensity and post-exercise recovery period occurring as within-subject factors, and fitness as a between-subject factor, 59 participants (M_age = 20 years) completed 12 primary laboratory visits. These visits included a 20-min bout of exercise (Control, Moderate, and Vigorous), followed by a recovery period (1, 5, 10, and 15 min) and then a word-list episodic memory task, involving an encoding phase and two long-term recall assessments (20-min and 24-h delayed recall). The primary finding from this experiment was that moderate and vigorous-intensity exercise improved memory function when compared to a non-exercise control. A secondary finding was that individuals with higher levels of aerobic endurance, compared to their lesser fit counterparts, had greater memory performance after exercise (moderate or vigorous) when compared to after a control condition. Additionally, individuals with higher levels of aerobic endurance, compared to their lesser fit counterparts, generally performed better on the memory task with longer post-exercise recovery periods. Future research should carefully consider these parameters when evaluating the effects of acute exercise on long-term episodic memory.

Acute Effects of Augmented Reality Exergames versus Cycle Ergometer on Reaction Time, Visual Attention, and Verbal Fluency in Community Older Adults

BACKGROUND

This study aims to investigate the acute effects of an augmented reality session and a cycle ergometer session compared to no exercise on the reaction times, cognitive flexibility, and verbal fluency of older adults.

METHODS

Each participant did a familiarization with cognitive tests and the following three sessions: cycle ergometer, no exercise (control group), and augmented reality exergame (Portable Exergame Platform for Elderly) sessions. The participants were randomized in a within-group design into one of six possible combinations. Each moment had a 30 min duration, and after the session, the participants performed a Trail Making Test, a verbal fluency test, and a Deary-Liewald reaction time task. The data were analyzed with a one-way ANOVA with a Bonferroni adjustment.

RESULTS

The analysis between the no exercise, cycle ergometer, and augmented reality sessions showed no significant differences in the cognitive measurements.

CONCLUSIONS

One session of the cycle ergometer exercise or the augmented reality exergames does not acutely improve the reaction times, cognitive flexibility, or verbal fluency in the elderly.

Acute effects of real and imagined endurance exercise on sustained attention performance

This study investigated acute effects of real and imagined endurance exercise on sustained attention performance in healthy young adults in order to shed light on the action mechanisms underlying changes in cognitive functioning. The neural similarities between both imagined and physically performed movements reveal that imagery induces transient hypofrontality, whereas real exercise reflects both transient hypofrontality effects and the global release of signaling factors (e.g., BDNF or serotonin) due to muscle contraction and the accompanying sensory feedback. We hypothesized improved cognitive functioning after both interventions (imagery and physical endurance exercise) with greater improvements for real exercise because it targets both mechanisms. Fifty-three sport science students completed two 25-min sessions of moderate endurance exercise in either a motor imagery modality or an executed bodily activity within the framework of an order-balanced crossover study. Assessments for sustained attention performance (d2-R) were performed before and after each endurance exercise condition. Statistical results showed improvements for both groups over time, which can mostly be explained by retest effects. However, we observed a significant interaction effect between group and time, F(1.6, 81.9) = 3.64, p = 0.04, η² = 0.07, with higher increases in the first session in case physical endurance exercise was performed compared to motor imagery exercise, t(51) = −2.71, p = 0.09, d = 0.75. This might suggest that the release of signaling factors due to muscle contractions with sensory feedback processing is an additional mediating mechanism alongside motor-related transient hypofrontality that improves cognitive performance.

Influence of current physical exercise on the relationship between aging and episodic memory and fluid intelligence

The present study examined the effects of current physical exercise and age on episodic memory and fluid intelligence, assessed with a free-recall task and the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (Cattell, 1963) respectively, while statistically controlling for other cognitive reserve factors (educational level, leisure activities, and vocabulary level). Two hundred and eight participants aged 20 to 85 participated in the study. Physical exercise level was indexed by weekly frequency over the last 12 months using self-reported measurement (from none to 4 times a week). Overall, results show a beneficial effect of physical exercise especially from a weekly practice of 2 times, and significant interaction between physical exercise and age on episodic memory and fluid intelligence capacities indicating a reduced effect of age in more physically active participants. These results reinforce the view that physical exercise is a strong and specific reserve factor that reduces decline in some cognitive functions during aging.

Intensity-dependent acute aerobic exercise: Effect on reactive control of attentional functions in acclimatized lowlanders at high altitude

Human attentional function is sensitive to hypoxia. However, little is known about whether and how attentional function is altered after acute aerobic exercise at high altitude, especially for acclimatized lowlanders. In this study, we used the Attention Network Test (ANT) to measure alerting, orienting, and executive control functions and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) with a different proportion of incongruent trials to investigate proactive and reactive control of executive function. We randomly divided the sample of 160 Tibetan lowlanders who had lived in the highlands for more than two years into four groups. Each of three groups performed 20 min of low-, moderate-, or high-intensity acute aerobic exercise, separately, and a control group watched a 20-min documentary. The ANT and SCWT were conducted before and after exercise or watching the documentary. The results indicated that the executive control effects of the three experimental groups significantly decreased and, in the posttest, the executive control effects of the high-intensity group were lower than those of the low-intensity group. Furthermore, the accuracy of the moderate- and high-intensity groups was increased significantly in the blocks containing 25% incongruent trials of SCWT task. These results suggest that the acute aerobic exercise at high altitude will improve the reactive control of attentional functions in acclimatized lowlanders, and the intensity may play an important role in the exercise-cognition interaction at high altitude.

Vigorous-intensity acute exercise during encoding can reduce levels of episodic and false memory

The potential benefits (veridical memory) and, importantly, costs (false memory) of acute exercise on memory in conjunction with the timing and type of exercise have not been fully studied. In Experiment 1, we employed a three-condition (15-minute vigorous-intensity acute exercise Before or During memory encoding, or a Control condition of watching a video), within-subjects, counterbalanced design. The procedures included an immediate and delayed (20-minute post encoding) free recall assessment. Veridical memory was determined by the number of studied words that were recalled, whereas false memory was determined by retrieving a non-presented, critical item. For veridical memory, Before was not different than Control (p = .42), however, During was worse than Before and Control (p's < .001). No differences occurred for false memory. Experiment 2 was conducted that included several additional exercise conditions (e.g., light-intensity exercise) during memory encoding, used a recognition task instead of a free recall task, and extended the long-term memory assessment out to 24-hours. Experiment 2 demonstrated that vigorous-intensity acute exercise during encoding reduced both veridical and false memory for related new items (p < .05). These findings demonstrate that the timing and intensity of exercise play an important role in influencing memory performance.

Effects of acute exercise on emotional memory

Research has demonstrated beneficial effects of acute exercise on memory for neutral materials, such as word lists of neutral valence/low arousal. However, the impacts of exercise on emotional memory is less understood. Across three laboratory experiments in college students, we tested if acute exercise could enhance both neutral and emotional memory performance, anticipating a greater effect for emotional memory. We examined effects of exercise at varying intensities (Experiment 1: high-intensity; Experiment 2: low- and high-intensity; Experiment 3: moderate-intensity), of diverse modalities (Experiment 1: treadmill jogging; Experiment 2: cycling; Experiment 3: open-skill (racquetball) and closed-skill (treadmill jogging) exercise), and on emotional memory performance assessed at increasing levels of hippocampal dependency (Experiment 1: Y/N recognition task; Experiment 2: paired-associative recognition task; Experiment 3: cued-recall task). We found that, in all experiments, acute exercise did not significantly influence emotional or neutral memory performance relative to sedentary control conditions. However, we observed several noteworthy outcomes indicating that acute exercise may be linked to improvements in memory confidence and accuracy for central aspects of emotional memory stimuli, and that select exercise modalities (e.g. treadmill exercise) may also be associated with increased frequency of memory intrusions.

Exercise Training Improves Memory Performance in Older Adults: A Narrative Review of Evidence and Possible Mechanisms

As human life expectancy increases, cognitive decline and memory impairment threaten independence and quality of life. Therefore, finding prevention and treatment strategies for memory impairment is an important health concern. Moreover, a better understanding of the mechanisms involved underlying memory preservation will enable the development of appropriate pharmaceuticals drugs for those who are activity limited. Exercise training as a non-pharmacological tool, has been known to increase the mean lifespan by maintaining general body health and improving the cardiovascular and nervous systems function. Among different exercise training protocols, aerobic exercise has been reported to prevent the progression of memory decline, provided adequate exertion level, duration, and frequency. Mechanisms underlying exercise training effects on memory performance have not been understood yet. Convergent evidence suggest several direct and indirect mechanisms at molecular and supramolecular levels. The supramolecular level includes improvement in blood circulation, synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis which are under controls of complex molecular signaling of neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, exerkines, and epigenetics factors. Among these various factors, irisin/BDNF signaling seems to be one of the important mediators of crosstalk between contracted skeletal muscles and the brain during exercise training. This review provides an affordable and effective method to improve cognitive function in old ages, particularly those who are most vulnerable to neurodegenerative disorders.

A Review of Cognitive Changes During Acute Aerobic Exercise

A growing body of work has investigated the effects of acute, or single bouts of, aerobic exercise on cognitive function. However, review of this research has largely focused on changes following exercise, with less focus on cognitive changes during exercise. The purpose of this review is to discuss the critical characteristics of this literature to date, including: (1) what has been done, (2) what has been found, and (3) what is next. Furthermore, previous meta-analytic reviews have demonstrated there is a small positive effect on cognition when measured during exercise, with executive functions showing the largest effects. However, these reviews group executive functions together. Here we explore how inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility are individually impacted by factors such as exercise intensity or duration. Searches of electronic databases and reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 73 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Studies were grouped by executive and non-executive cognitive domains, intensity and duration of exercise bouts. Within the executive domain, we found that effects on working memory and cognitive flexibility remain mixed, effects on inhibition are clearer. Moderate intensity exercise improves response time, vigorous intensity impairs accuracy. Moderate to vigorous intensity improves response time across non-executive domains of attention, motor speed and information processing, with no significant effects on accuracy. Memory processes are consistently improved during exercise. Effects of exercise duration on response time and accuracy are nuanced and vary by cognitive domain. Studies typically explore durations of 45 min or less, extended exercise durations remain largely unexplored. We highlight factors to consider when assessing exercise-cognition relationships, as well as current gaps and future directions for work in this field.

EXPRESS: Effects of Acute Exercise Intensity on Source Episodic Memory and Metamemory Accuracy

Prior research suggests that behavioral (e.g., exercise) and psychological factors (e.g., metamemory; monitoring and control of one's memory processes) may influence memory function. However, there is conflicting results on the optimal intensity of acute exercise to enhance memory and whether acute exercise can also enhance metamemory. Further, very limited research has evaluated whether acute exercise can influence source episodic memory. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether there is an intensity-specific effect of acute aerobic exercise on source episodic memory and metamemory accuracy. Thirty young adults participated in a three condition (Control/Moderate/Vigorous-Intensity Exercise), within-subject counterbalanced experimental study. After each intervention, participants completed source episodic memory and metamemory tasks. Results demonstrated that acute exercise, relative to control, was effective in enhancing source episodic memory, but not metamemory accuracy. Vigorous-intensity acute exercise was the most optimal intensity to enhance source episodic memory. Overall, our findings suggest that there is an intensity-specific effect of acute exercise on source episodic memory. Further, when exercise-related improvements in memory occur, young adults may be unaware of these memory benefits from exercise.

Acute and Chronic Exercise Effects on Human Memory: What We Know and Where to Go from Here

Although the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of memories was once thought to happen within a single memory system with multiple processes operating on it, it is now believed that memory is comprised of both distinct and interacting brain systems [...].

Can acute resistance exercise facilitate episodic memory encoding?

Research has shown benefits of physical exercise on memory performance when carried out before or after a memory task. The effects of concurrent physical exercise and particularly resistance exercise are still inconclusive. The current study investigates the influence of resistance exercise with two intensities (fast and slow squats) on performance in a wordlist learning task using a within-subject design. Sport students (N = 58, Mage = 23 years; 26 women) were trained in a mnemonic technique to encode word lists (method of loci). In each session they were asked to encode two lists, each consisting of 20 words. During encoding, participants either performed one squat per word (fast-squat-condition), one squat every second word (slow-squat-condition), or stayed seated (control-condition). Participants performed three sessions for each condition, in counterbalanced order. Heart rates differed significantly according to exercise intensity. Memory performances in the sitting condition were better, compared to the exercise conditions. Performance in sitting and the fast squat conditions improved similarly over time, while performance in the slow squat condition increased faster, and reached the level of the fast squat condition at the end of the study phase. We conclude that light to moderate resistance exercise while working on an episodic memory task may rather represent a dual-task situation (= two tasks that compete for attentional resources). Especially doing a squat every second word may represent an inhibition task that people have to get used to. Future studies should include biochemical markers of arousal and neuronal plasticity in addition to heart rate.

Effects of Acute Exercise on Memory Performance in Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Numerous studies show that exercise benefits memory and some show that acute exercise prior to encoding has larger benefits than exercise after encoding. This study was designed to investigate the effects of acute exercise on memory in middle-aged and older adults (Mage = 64.71 years) and to explore the influence of the timing of the exercise on these effects. Using a within-subjects design, moderate-intensity exercise (20 min) was either not performed (control), performed before the task (exercise prior), or performed after the task (exercise post). Memory was assessed using the Rey Auditory Learning Verbal Test. For short- and long-term memory and learning, significantly more words were remembered in the exercise-prior condition than the others. For 24-hr recall, participants remembered significantly more words in the exercise-prior condition than exercise post, which was better than control. Exercise benefits memory for healthy middle-aged and older adults, with the greatest benefits when performed prior to encoding.

Carbohydrate ingestion attenuates cognitive dysfunction following long-duration exercise in the heat in humans

INTRODUCTION

To determine if electrolyte or carbohydrate supplementation vs. water would limit the magnitude of dehydration and decline in cognitive function in humans following long-duration hyperthermic-exercise.

METHODS

24 subjects performed 3 visits of 2 h walking (3mph/7% grade) in an environmental chamber (33 °C/10% relative humidity). In random order, subjects consumed water (W), electrolytes (Gatorade Zero; E), or electrolytes+carbohydrates (Gatorade; E+C). Throughout exercise (EX), subjects carried a 23 kg pack and drank ad-libitum. Pre-and post-EX, body mass (BM) and plasma osmolality (pOsm) were measured. Physiological Strain Index (PSI) and core temperature (T_C) were recorded every 15 min. Plasma glucose (GLU) was measured every 30 min. Cognitive processing (SCWT) was measured post-EX and compared to baseline (BL). A subset of 8 subjects performed a normothermic (N) protocol (21 °C/ambient humidity) to ascertain how the exercise stimulus influenced hydration status and cognition without heat.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences between fluid conditions (W, E, E+C) for BM loss (Δ2.5 ± 0.2, 2.5 ± 0.2, 2.3 ± 0.2 kg), fluid consumption (1.9 ± 0.2, 1.9 ± 0.2, 1.8 ± 0.2L), pOsm (Δ1.5 ± 2.7, 2.2 ± 2.4, 2.0 ± 1.5 mmol/L), peak-PSI (7.5 ± 0.4, 7.0 ± 0.6, 7.9 ± 0.5), and peak-T_C (38.7 ± 0.1, 38.6 ± 0.2, 38.8 ± 0.2 °C). GLU decreased significantly in W and E, whereas it increased above BL in E+C at 60, 90, and 120 min (P < 0.05). Compared to BL values (43.6 ± 26 ms), SCWT performance significantly decreased in all conditions (463 ± 93, 422 ± 83, 140 ± 52 ms, P < 0.05). Importantly, compared to W and E, the impairment in SCWT was significantly attenuated in E+C (P < 0.05). As expected, when compared to the heat-stress protocol (W, E, E+C), N resulted in lower BM loss, fluid consumption, and peak-PSI (1.1 ± 0.1 kg, 1.2 ± 0.7L, 4.8, respectively), and improved SCWT performance.

CONCLUSIONS

These data are the first to suggest that, independent of supplementation variety, cognitive processing significantly decreases immediately following long-duration exercise in the heat in healthy humans. Compared to water and fluids supplemented with only electrolytes, fluids supplemented with carbohydrates significantly blunts this decrease in cognitive function.

Clinical efficacy of aerobic exercise combined with computer-based cognitive training in stroke: a multicenter randomized controlled trial

PURPOSE

The objectives are to evaluate the effects of a sequential combination of aerobic exercise and cognitive training, compared with exercise or cognitive training alone, on cognitive function, physical function, daily function, quality of life, and social participation in stroke survivors with cognitive impairment.

METHODS

This is a single-blind, parallel, randomized controlled trial. Stroke patients with mild cognitive impairment (n = 56) were randomly assigned to aerobic exercise training (n = 18), computerized cognitive training (n = 18), and the sequential combination of aerobic exercise and computerized cognitive training (n = 20) group. All groups underwent training 60 min/day, 3 days/week, for a total of 12 weeks. The primary outcomes included Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Wechsler Memory Scale-Third Edition, and the Stroop color-word test. Secondary outcomes were the Timed Up and Go test, 6-Minute Walk Test, Functional Independence Measure, Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale, Community Integration Questionnaire, and Stroke Impact Scale.

RESULTS

56 participants completed the trial. Compared with a single type of aerobic exercise or cognitive training, the combined training group showed significant improvement in MoCA (P < .05, η2 = 0.13), and two sub-tests in WMS-III (both P's < 0.05) following the intervention. However, no between-group differences were observed for physical functions, daily function, quality of life, and social participation measures.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings provide evidence for the potential synergistic intervention in stroke survivors. Future studies investigating the transfer effects and the optimal training parameters with a larger sample is needed.

Acute Exercise and Cognitive Function in Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Many studies have shown the impact of acute aerobic exercises (AAE) on cognition in healthy adults or at a pre-dementia stage. Few studies, however, have explored the positive effects of AAE in moderate Alzheimer's disease (ADM) patients.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluating the effect of AAE on cognitive functions in ADM patients.

METHODS

Overall, 79 (age: 69.62±0.99) ADM patients were recruited. Participants were divided into three groups according to the task: aerobic exercises done alone or combined with cognitive games presented on a screen, and a control group who performed a reading task. The aerobic exercise protocol consisted of a 20-min cycling exercise of moderate intensity, corresponding to 60%of the individual target maximal heart rate recorded in a 6-minute walking test. The participants' cognition was monitored before and after the intervention using the Tower of Hanoi, Digit Span, and Stroop tasks.

RESULTS

After the exercise, the participants' attention in both the physical and combined groups improved for the Stroop, the forward and backward Digit Span tasks, as well as the time taken to solve the Tower of Hanoi, although no significant differences were found in the number of moves taken in the latter. By contrast, the control group did not show any significant improvement for most of the cognitive tasks after the reading session.

CONCLUSION

Current evidence suggests that AAE may help to improve cognitive functions in ADM patients. This improvement is enhanced when the exercise is combined with cognitive games. Safe and progressive types of exercises should be promoted among ADM patients.

Examining the Role of Physical Activity on Word Learning in School-Aged Children

Purpose Previous studies show that there is increased brain activity after exercise, leading to improved word recall in adults. The aim of this study was to examine whether different types of exercise (i.e., aerobic vs. anaerobic) may also lead to improved performance during vocabulary learning in children. Method A total of 48 participants (24 in Experiment 1 and 24 in Experiment 2) between the ages of 6 and 12 years completed a word learning task. Training of words took place in a resting and in an exercise condition using a within-subject design. In the resting measure, children were taught names of novel objects and then colored for 3 min before being tested on their ability to recognize the words. In the exercise condition, the same steps were followed, but instead of coloring, children engaged in 3 min of either aerobic exercise (i.e., swimming in Experiment 1) or anaerobic exercise (i.e., a CrossFit-like workout in Experiment 2). Results In Experiment 1, accuracy of word recognition was significantly higher for words that were trained in the aerobic exercise compared to the resting condition. In Experiment 2, there was no significant difference in performance between the anaerobic exercise and resting conditions. Conclusions These findings suggest that previously identified benefits of exercise on language abilities in adults also extend to school-aged children. However, not all types of physical activity lead to this boost in performance, as only aerobic (but not anaerobic) exercise improved children's ability to acquire new word-object relations. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14462187.

The Effects of Acute Exercise on Short- and Long-Term Memory: Considerations for the Timing of Exercise and Phases of Memory

The specific questions addressed from this research include: (1) Does high-intensity acute exercise improve memory?, (2) If so, do the mechanisms occur via encoding, consolidation, or retrieval? and (3) If acute exercise occurs in multiple phases of memory (e.g., before encoding and during consolidation), does this have an additive effect on memory? Three experimental, within-subject, counterbalanced studies were conducted among young adults. High-intensity exercise involved a 20-minutes bout of exercise at 75% of heart rate reserve. Memory was evaluated from a word-list task, including multiple evaluations out to 24-hours post-encoding. The timing of the exercise and memory assessments were carefully positioned to evaluate whether any improvements in memory were driven by mechanisms related to encoding, consolidation, and/or retrieval. We demonstrated that high-intensity acute exercise enhanced memory. This effect was robust (repeatable) and occurred through encoding, consolidation and retrieval-based mechanisms. Further, incorporating acute exercise into multiple phases of memory additively enhanced memory function.

The Impact of Acute Exercise Timing on Memory Interference

This study evaluated whether the timing of acute exercise can attenuate a memory interference effect. Across two experiments, participants completed an AB/AC memory task. Participants studied eight word pairs; four denoted AB (e.g., Hero - Apple) and four control (DE) pairs. Following this List 1, participants studied eight additional word pairs (List 2); four denoted AC, re-using words from the AB pairs (e.g., Hero - Project) and four control (FG) pairs. Following their study of both lists, participants completed a cued recall assessment. In Experiment 1 (N = 100), an acute exercise bout occurred before the AB/AC memory interference task, and the participants' three lab visits (successive conditions) were control, moderate-intensity (50% HRR; heart rate reserve) exercise, and vigorous-intensity (80% HRR) exercise. In Experiment 2 (N = 68), the acute exercise occurred between List 1 and List 2, and the participants' two lab visits (successive conditions) were a (80% HRR) vigorous-intensity exercise visit and a control visit. Across both experiments, we observed evidence of both proactive and retroactive interference (p < .05), but acute exercise, regardless of intensity, did not attenuate this interference (p > .05). Acute moderate-intensity exercise was better than control or vigorous-intensity exercise in enhancing associative memory (p < .05), independent of interference. In Experiment 2, vigorous intensity exercise was associated with more pronounced interference (p < .05). Our results suggest that acute exercise can enhance associative memory performance, with no attenuation of interference by exercise.

Effects of Exercise on Explicit Memory Function: Incidental and Intentional Encoding May Depend on Exercise Timing

The present experiment evaluated the effects of self-reported exercise behavior and an acute bout of high-intensity exercise on explicit memory function. The memory tasks were encoded either incidentally or intentionally; for intentional encoding, participants were told to focus on memorizing the stimuli (words), whereas for incidental encoding, participants were unaware that they would be subsequently asked to complete an object recognition task. Among a sample of 150 adults (M_age = 20 years), randomly assigned experimental participants engaged in the following task sequence: (a) incidentally encoded a series of objects, (b) engaged in 20 minutes of high-intensity exercise, (c) intentionally encoded a word list, and (d) completed explicit memory retrieval tasks. Control group participants viewed a time matched video in lieu of high intensity exercise. We measured self-reported exercise behavior via an exercise questionnaire. We did not observe convincing evidence of an effect of high-intensity acute exercise, when occurring during the early consolidation period, on memory function, for either incidental or intentional encoding tasks. However, self-reported engagement in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was favorably associated with explicit memory performance.

Does Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Influence Episodic Memory through Unique Mechanisms?

Aerobic and resistance exercise (acute and chronic) independently and collectively induce beneficial responses in the brain that may influence memory function, including an increase in cerebral blood flow, neurogenesis, neuroelectrical alterations, and protein production. However, whether aerobic and resistance exercise improve memory via similar or distinct mechanisms has yet to be fully explained. Here, we review the unique influence of aerobic and resistance exercise on neural modulation, proteins, receptors, and ultimately, episodic memory. Resistance training may optimize neural communication, information processing and memory encoding by affecting the allocation of attentional resources. Moreover, resistance exercise can reduce inflammatory markers associated with neural communication while increasing peripheral and central BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) production. Aerobic training increases hippocampal levels of BDNF and TrkB (Tropomyosin receptor kinase B), protein kinases and glutamatergic proteins. Likewise, both aerobic and anaerobic exercise can increase CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) phosphorylation. Thus, we suggest that aerobic and resistance exercise may influence episodic memory via similar and, potentially, distinct mechanisms.

Converging Evidence Supporting the Cognitive Link between Exercise and Esport Performance: A Dual Systematic Review

(1) Background: Research into action video games (AVG) has surged with the popularity of esports over the past three decades. Specifically, evidence is mounting regarding the importance of enhanced cognitive abilities for successful esports performance. However, due to the sedentary nature in which AVGs are played, concerns are growing with the increased engagement young adults have with AVGs. While evidence exists supporting the benefits of exercise for cognition generally in older adult, children and clinical populations, little to no work has synthesized the existing knowledge regarding the effect of exercise specifically on the cognitive abilities required for optimal esports performance in young adults. (2) Method: We conducted a dual-systematic review to identify the cognitive abilities integral to esports performance (Phase 1) and the efficacy of exercise to enhance said cognitive abilities (Phase 2). (3) Results: We demonstrate the importance of four specific cognitive abilities for AVG play (attention, task-switching, information processing, and memory abilities) and the effect that different types and durations of physical exercise has on each. (4) Conclusion: Together, these results highlight the role that exercise can have on not only combating the sedentary nature of gaming, but also its potential role in facilitating the cognitive aspects of gaming performance.

Acute exercise, memory, and neural activation in young adults

Acute exercise benefits memory, and the temporal placement of exercise relative to exposure can affect the magnitude of benefits observed. Although the temporal placement appears to be important, there is a limited understanding as to how cognitive benefits in response to acute exercise are achieved. Hence, we conducted a two-part study including a behavioral study and a follow-up functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study to advance our understanding of the potential role of the effects of exercise on memory and neural activation. For Study One, we assessed the effect of acute exercise on memory in young adults. Participants were randomized to exercise before exposure for 20 min (before only, BO), after exposure for 20 min (After Only, AO), before and after exposure for 10 min at each time (before and after, BA), or to receive no exercise (No-exercise Control, NC). Similar to previous findings, any exercise prior to exposure (BO, BA) benefited some aspects of memory performance. Interestingly, the more consistent and larger benefits were seen with a shorter duration of exercise both before and after exposure (BA). Study Two replicated the methods of Study One comparing the BA condition (which had the most robust benefits) to the NC condition while collecting fMRI data during the memory task. Analyses assessed condition differences of activation during encoding and recall. There were no condition differences during memory encoding, however there was a condition effect on activation in occipito-temporal regions during the memory recall trials. Consistent with previous research, exercise appears to benefit memory with some exercise prior to exposure being important for the benefits achieved. Further, exercise affects neural activation and the results appear complementary to the behavior findings. Future research should use a within-subjects design to control for heterogeneity in behavior and neural activation.

Distinct Effects of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Declarative Memory and Procedural Memory Formation

Objective: To investigate the different effects of acute aerobic exercise on the formation of long-term declarative memory (DM) and procedural memory (PM). Methods: Twenty-two young men completed DM and PM tasks under three experimental conditions: pre-acquisition exercise, post-acquisition exercise, and no exercise (control). The DM task encompassed word learning, free recall tests both immediately and 1 h later, and a recognition test conducted 24 h after word learning. A serial reaction time task (SRTT) was utilized to assess exercise effects on PM. The SRTT included a sequence learning phase followed by sequence tests 1 h and 24 h later. The exercise program consisted of 30 min of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. Results: In the DM task, compared to the control condition, pre-acquisition exercise, but not post-acquisition exercise, enhanced free recall performance significantly 1 h and 24 h later. The target word recognition rate and discriminative index (d') of the recognition test were significantly enhanced in both exercise conditions compared to the control condition. In the PM task, we observed significantly reduced (improved) reaction times at the 24-h test in the post-acquisition exercise condition compared to in the control condition. Conclusion: Acute aerobic exercise may enhance long-term DM and PM via effects on different processing periods. For DM, exercise had a pronounced effect during the encoding period, whereas for PM, exercise was found to have an enhancing effect during the consolidation period.

The Effects of Acute Moderate and High Intensity Exercise on Memory

Acute cardiovascular exercise can enhance correct remembering but its impact upon false remembering is less clear. In two experiments, we investigated the effect of acute bouts of exercise on correct and false remembering using the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) memory test. In Experiment 1, healthy adults completed quiet rest or moderate intensity cycling prior to the memory test. In Experiment 2, a similar sample completed moderate intensity running, high intensity sprints, or a period of quiet rest prior to the memory test. In Experiment 1, acute moderate intensity exercise increased short-term correct, but not false, recall. Experiment 2 replicated these findings but also found an acute bout of high intensity exercise had no impact upon either type of short-term recall. Acute moderate intensity exercise, but not acute high intensity exercise, can improve short-term correct recall without an accompanying increase in false recall potentially through processing of contextually specific information during encoding.

Motor behavior-induced prefrontal cortex activation and episodic memory function

BACKGROUND

The objective of this paper was to evaluate the potential individual and combined effects of acute exercise coupled with bilateral interhemispheric activation on episodic memory function. Six experiments were conducted.

METHODS

Experiment 1 was a within-subject, counterbalanced experiment. Participants completed four visits, including 1) exercise and saccadic eye movements, 2) exercise only, 3) saccadic eye movements only, and 4) no exercise and no saccadic eye movements (control). A word-list memory assessment was employed, including a long-term (20-min delay) memory evaluation. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the effects of saccadic eye movements on prefrontal cortex oxygenation, a proxy for neuronal activity. Similarly, in our third experiment, we evaluated the effects of acute exercise on prefrontal cortex oxygenation. Thus, experiments 2 and 3 were employed to provide mechanistic insights from the results shown in experiment 1. Experiment 4 replicated Experiment 1, but instead of increasing prefrontal cortex activation via saccadic eye movements, we used a fist clenching protocol. Experiment 5 evaluated the effects of fist clenching on prefrontal cortex oxygenation.

RESULTS

Collectively, these 5 experimental studies showed that acute exercise (Experiment 1), saccadic eye movements (Experiment 1), and fist clenching (Experiment 4) enhanced memory function, and that acute exercise (Experiment 3), saccadic eye movements (Experiment 2) and fist clenching (Experiment 5) all increased prefrontal cortex oxygenation. Experiment 6 demonstrated that prefrontal cortex oxygenation was positively associated with episodic memory function.

CONCLUSION

These six experiments suggest that several behaviors, such as acute exercise, saccadic eye movements and fist clenching may improve memory function and may, potentially, do so via increases in prefrontal cortex oxygenation.

Testing the efficacy of a brief exercise intervention for enhancing exposure therapy outcomes

Recently, it has been hypothesized that a brief bout of exercise could cognitively enhance extinction learning processes theorized to underlie exposure therapy for pathological anxiety. The present study tested the exercise enhancement hypothesis in a sample of speech-anxious undergraduates (n = 84). During the first laboratory session, participants engaged in either 30 min of moderate-intensity exercise on a cycling ergometer (n = 37) or seated rest (n = 47) immediately following a brief speech exposure trial. They returned approximately one week later to give a follow-up speech. Contrary to expectation, there were no significant between-group differences in memory of a brief word list across four recall trials, which served as a manipulation check. Further, all main effects and interactions involving condition were nonsignificant. Post hoc tests revealed that participants who reported higher average perceived exertion during exercise demonstrated increases in an average anxiety composite across speeches relative to those who reported lower average perceived exertion, indicating that trying hard during the intervention predicted worse exposure trial outcomes. The implications of these findings, as well as future directions for this line of research, are explored.

Effects of an aerobic fitness test on short- and long-term memory in elementary-aged children

Meta-analytic evidence supports that exercise has benefits for short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). However, only three studies with children have tested the differential effects of exercise on STM and LTM. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an aerobic fitness test on STM and LTM and to consider the moderating effects of grade level. Children (7-13 years of age) were randomly assigned to either perform an aerobic fitness test before (exercise prior) or after (exercise post) performing the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) to assess memory. Memory was tested again after approximately 24 hours. There were significant differences in memory performance as a function of grade with 4^th and 6^th graders consistently outperforming 2^nd graders. For learning, Day 1 Retention, 24-hr recall, and Day 2 Retention, the exercise prior group performed better than the exercise post group. It is concluded that an aerobic fitness test performed prior to a declarative memory test benefits LTM as compared to when the aerobic fitness test is performed after the memory test.

Performance on an Associative Memory Test Decreases 8 hr After Cardiovascular Exercise

This study was designed to assess the effects of acute exercise on performance of a paired associate learning (PAL) test, an operationalization of hippocampal-dependent associative memory. Participants performed a PAL test and then ran on a treadmill (exercise group, n = 52) or solved Sudoku puzzles (control group, n = 54). Participants returned 2, 5, or 8 hr later to perform a second, different, PAL test. PAL scores for the control group did not change over time. Similarly, scores on tests taken 2 and 5 hr after exercise were not different from baseline or control data. Scores on tests taken 8 hr after exercise, however, fell significantly below baseline (by 8.6%) and control (by 9.8%) scores. These data demonstrate that acute exercise can negatively affect the encoding and retrieval of new information even hours after the exercise bout, which should be a consideration when designing exercise programs to enhance, and not hinder, learning.

Running During Encoding Improves Word Learning for Children

The learning of new information is an important task in everyday life, especially at a young age. Acute physical exercise can facilitate cognitive processes in multiple ways, and previous studies have shown that memory can profit from physical exercise before and during the encoding of vocabulary. The current study investigates the interplay of movement and vocabulary learning and also addresses lifespan differences in these effects. Participants were recruited in a recreational basketball club. Children (n = 24, M_age = 12.3 years; 13 girls), young adults (n = 30, M_age = 21.5 years; 17 women), and older adults (n = 24, M_age = 59.3 years; 9 women) learned 20 new pseudo-words, which corresponded to a German word. In a between-subjects design, encoding took place either while standing, while running, or while running and dribbling a basketball. Recall was assessed three times throughout the learning session and on the following day. In children, more words could be remembered in the running condition compared to the standing condition. There were no differences between conditions for the young and older adults. Age-dependent reasons for this pattern of results are discussed and embedded into the literature of physical exercise. Our result suggests that implementing learning activities into children’s physical education or exercise activities could be beneficial.

Acute exercise on memory function: open vs. closed skilled exercise

Background: Previous studies suggest that acute exercise may improve memory function. Few studies, however, have investigated the differential effect of the acute exercise movement patterns on memory. Such an effect is plausible, as research demonstrates that open-skilled exercise (e.g.,racquetball) may have a greater effect on memory-related neurotrophins (e.g., brain-derived neurotrophic factors) when compared to closed-skilled exercise (e.g. treadmill exercise). A key distinction between open- and closed-skilled exercise is that open-skilled exercises are those that require an individual to react in a dynamic way to a changing, unpredictable environment. Our aim in this study was to assess wether retrospective and prospective memory are differentially influenced from open- and closed-skilled acute exercise. Methods: A within-subject design was employed. Participants (Mage = 20.6 years; 69% female)completed two visits, in a counterbalanced order. The two experimental conditions included open-skilled acute exercise (racquetball) and closed-skilled acute exercise (treadmill exercise),each lasting 30-minute at 60% of heart rate reserve (HRR). During both experimental conditions,participants completed short- and long-term assessments of retrospective and prospective memory function. Retrospective memory was evaluated across multiple word-list trials (e.g.,Trials 1-6, 20-minute delay, 24-hour delay). Results: No significant effect of exercise was found on prospective memory. For retrospective memory, there was a significant main effect for condition, F(1, 57) = 5.33, P = 0.02, η2 = 0.004,main effect for trial, F(4.12, 234.9) = 227.85, P < 0.001, η2 = 0.46, but no condition by trial interaction, F(4.63, 264.08) = 1.022, P = 0.40, η2 = 0.002. Conclusion: Retrospective memory was greater after closed-skilled exercise (treadmill) when compared to open-skilled exercise (racquetball).

Experimental Effects of Priming on Affective Responses to Acute Exercise

The purpose of this study was to experimentally investigate the relationship between positive affect elicitation (using a short video clip) prior to exercise and affect during acute aerobic exercise. A counterbalanced, within-subject experimental design was used. We conducted three related experiments. In Experiment 1, 30 adults aged 18–40 years participated in a positive affect-elicitation condition (“affective priming”) and a control condition. Participation involved watching a five-minute video clip, as well as walking on a treadmill at a (self-selected) brisk pace for ten minutes. We compared affective ratings at baseline and intra-exercise for both conditions using a 2 (condition; priming versus no priming) × 2 (time; pre- versus mid-exercise) repeated measures ANOVA. In the follow-up experiments, we re-examined the relationship between affective priming and intra-exercise affect, addressing some limitations noted with Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, we compared the affect-elicitation properties of self-selected and imposed video clips. In Experiment 3, we re-investigated the potential affective benefits of priming, while including a neutral (neither positive nor negative) video during the control condition to attenuate potential demand characteristics, and a positive video-only condition to investigate possible carryover effects. Self-selected and imposed film clips showed similar affect-elicitation properties. Comparing the priming and control conditions, there were notable differences in the mean intra-exercise affective valence ratings (p = 0.07 Experiment 1, p = 0.01 Experiment 3). The mean affective activation ratings were not significantly different (p = 0.07 Experiment 1, p = 0.86 Experiment 3). Priming the affective state prior to exercise may be beneficial for enhancing intra-exercise affect.

Experimental Effects of Acute High-Intensity Resistance Exercise on Episodic Memory Function: Consideration for Post-Exercise Recovery Period

Background

The present experiments evaluated the effects of acute high-intensity resistance exercise on episodic memory.

Methods

Two experiments were conducted. For Experiment 1, participants (N = 40; M_age = 21.0 years) were randomized into one of two groups, including an experimental exercise group and a control group (seated for 20 min). The experimental group engaged in an acute bout of resistance exercises (circuit style exercises) for 15 minutes, followed by a 5-min recovery period. Memory function was subsequently assessed using a multiple trial (immediate and delay), word-list episodic memory task (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, RAVLT), and then followed by a comprehensive, computerized assessment of episodic memory (Treasure Hunt task, THT). The THT involved a spatio-temporal assessment of what, where, and when components of episodic memory. Experiment 2 evaluated if altering the recovery period would influence the potential negative effects of high-intensity resistance exercise on episodic memory function. For Experiment 2, participants (N = 51) were randomized into the same acute resistance exercise protocol but either with a 10-min recovery period, 20-min recovery period, or a control group.

Results

For Experiment 1, for RAVLT, the exercise group performed worse (F_{group × time} = 3.7, p = .001, η ²p = .09). Across nearly all THT outcomes, the exercise group had worse spatio-temporal memory than the control group. These results suggest that high-intensity resistance exercise (with a 5-min recovery) may have a detrimental effect on episodic memory function. For Experiment 2, for RAVLT, the exercise with 10-min recovery group performed better (F_{group × time} = 3.1, p = .04, η ²p = .11). Unlike Experiment 1, exercise did not impair spatio-temporal memory, with the 20-min exercise recovery group having the best "where" component of episodic memory.

Conclusion

Collectively, the results from these two experiments suggest that acute high-intensity resistance exercise may impair episodic memory when a short exercise recovery period (e.g., 5-min) is employed, but with a longer recovery period (10+ min), acute high-intensity resistance exercise may, potentially, enhance episodic memory.

Effects of Exercise on Memory Interference in Neuropsychiatric Disorders

There are several mechanisms that cause memory impairment, including motivated forgetting, active forgetting, natural decay, and memory interference. Interference occurs when one is attempting to recall something specific, but there is conflicting information making it more difficult to recall the target stimuli. In laboratory settings, it is common to measure memory interference with paired associate tasks-usually utilizing the AB-CD, AB-AC, AB-ABr, or AB-DE AC-FG method. Memory impairments are frequent among those with neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, and multiple sclerosis. The memory effects of each condition differ, but are all related to alterations in brain physiology and general memory deterioration. Exercise, or physical activity, has been demonstrated to attenuate memory interference in some cases, but the mechanisms are still being determined. Further research is needed on memory interference, in regard to exercise and neuropsychiatric disorders.