Conjunctivitis, rhinitis, and sinusitis in cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) found in association with Mycoplasma sturni infection and cryptosporidiosis

Detection of Mycoplasma spp. in free-living seabirds

This study aimed to investigate the presence of Mycoplasma spp. and identify the species of mycoplasma isolates obtained from seabirds found on Brazilian coastal beaches. Tracheal and cloacal swab samples were collected from 50 seabirds rescued by three conservation and marine animal rehabilitation centers located in Brazil. The tracheal and cloacal samples were subjected to mycoplasma culture and the isolates were identified through PCR. A "Mollicutes-specific" 16S rRNA PCR reaction was employed for triage. Four species-specific PCR reactions were used to detect Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, Mycoplasma meleagridis, or M. gallinarum. The Mollicutes positive and species negative samples were submitted do 16S rRNA sequencing. Eighteen (36%) of 50 seabirds tested positive for mycoplasma by culture. In the PCR for the genus, 28 (56%) of 50 seabirds were positive for Mycoplasma spp., with 13 (26%) detected in the trachea, one (2%) in the cloaca, and 14 (28%) in both sites. In the species-specific PCR, M. gallisepticum was detected in 17.8%, and M. meleagridis in 17.8%. Both species were detected in 14.3%. Of the isolates not characterized at species level, we obtained ten sequences and they were divided into three clusters. The first cluster was closely related to M. meleagridis, the second to M. synoviae, and the third grouped M. tully, M. gallisepticum, and M. imitans. Four and five of nine species of seabirds studied had mycoplasma detected by culture or PCR, respectively. Mycoplasmas were found in the majority of the animals studied, with the highest prevalence proportionally found in Sula leucogaster, and the lowest in Fregata magnificens. The phylogenetic analysis identified Mycoplasma spp. adapted to aquatic birds.

The detection of Mycoplasma sturni and Mycoplasma moatsii from the choana of a barn swallow (Hirundo rustica): a case report

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasmas are found in many different species. Until now 26 avian mycoplasma species have been described, but in the most free ranging bird species the prevalence and significance of Mycoplasma spp. is still unclear.

CASE PRESENTATION

In May 2021 a barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) was brought to a veterinary clinic after it hit a window. As part of the routine exam a choanal swab was taken for mycoplasma culture and for the detection of mycoplasmas using a Mycoplasma-genus-specific Polymerase chain reaction. Six single colony subcultures were obtained by the cultivation. Obtained subcultures were investigated by sequencing the 16S rRNA and the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region sequence. The 16S rRNA gene sequence from one subculture had a homology of 99.03% and the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region sequence of 100% with the sequence of Mycoplasma sturni. The 16S rRNA gene sequence from the other five subcultures shared a homology of 99.89% and the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region sequence of 99.81% with the sequence of Mycoplasma moatsii.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the available literature this is the first report about the detection of M. moatsii, in the respiratory tract of a barn swallow. M. moatsii was previously only found in grivit monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops), Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) and a mute swan (Cygnus olor). The role of mycoplasmas in barn swallows is still unknown, especially as in the present case both mycoplasma species do not seem to cause clinical symptoms.

Occurrence of Mycoplasma spp. in wild birds: phylogenetic analysis and potential factors affecting distribution

Different Mycoplasma species have been reported in avian hosts. However, the majority of studies focus on one particular species of Mycoplasma or one host. In our research, we screened a total of 1141 wild birds representing 55 species, 26 families, and 15 orders for the presence of mycoplasmas by conventional PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. Selected PCR products were sequenced to perform the phylogenetic analysis. All mycoplasma-positive samples were tested for M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae, which are considered the major pathogens of commercial poultry. We also verified the influence of ecological characteristics of the tested bird species including feeding habits, habitat types, and movement patterns. The presence of Mycoplasma spp. was confirmed in 498 birds of 29 species, but none of the tested birds were positive for M. gallisepticum or M. synoviae. We found possible associations between the presence of Mycoplasma spp. and all investigated ecological factors. The phylogenetic analysis showed a high variability of Mycoplasma spp.; however, some clustering of sequences was observed regarding particular bird species. We found that wild migratory waterfowl, particularly the white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) and mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) could be reservoirs and vectors of mycoplasmas pathogenic to commercial waterfowl.

Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in wild birds: A One Health perspective

Cryptosporidium is one of the most important parasitic protozoa that can be transmitted through food and water contamination. With the increasing report of Cryptosporidium infections in wild birds, especially in herbivorous waterfowl, concerns have been raised for oocyst contamination of water and food supplies, which in turn can cause human and domestic animal infections in areas neighboring wild birds' habitats. This review discusses the epidemiology, species, and genotypes distribution of Cryptosporidium in wild birds around the world. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium in wild birds was calculated as 3.96% (1945/49129), with 6 Cryptosporidium species (C. andersoni, C. parvum, C. meleagridis, C. avium, C. baileyi, and C. galli) and 5 genotypes (Goose genotype I, Goose genotype II, Avian genotype I, Avian genotype III, and Avian genotype VI) reported. As wild birds mainly live in the wild, control method for the Cryptosporidium infection in wild birds is still lacking, which increases the probability of disease transmission from wild birds to humans. The main purpose of this review is to highlight the Cryptosporidium infection in wild birds and its transmission, associated risk factors, and their prevention, illustrating the necessity of multidisciplinary approaches toward screening and control of Cryptosporidium infections.

Diagnosis and Treatment of a Swainson's Toucan (Ramphastos ambiguus swainsonii) With Rhinosinusitis

A female Swainson's toucan (Ramphastos ambiguus swainsonii) was presented for examination with a 2-year history of mucoid nasal discharge and abnormal growth of the rhamphotheca. Nasal cytologic examination and culture results were consistent with mixed aerobic and anaerobic bacterial rhinitis. Radiographic and computed tomographic imaging demonstrated a deviated septum of the nasal diverticulum and multiple soft tissue densities in the caudal aspects of the maxillary and mandibular infraorbital diverticula of the infraorbital sinus. Results of rhinoscopy and biopsy confirmed bacterial rhinitis. Treatment included multiple nasal lavages with saline, gentamicin, and amphotericin B and systemic ciprofloxacin and tobramycin nebulizations for several weeks. Repeat radiographic imaging 4 years later showed resolution of most soft tissue opacities previously observed within the maxillary and mandibular diverticula but persistence of 3 areas of soft tissue, dense material within the maxillary sinus diverticulum. A sinus trephination procedure was performed through the maxillary bone for sinoscopy and sample collection and topical treatment. Results of aerobic bacterial cultures from the granulomas were negative. Biopsy results were consistent with keratin granulomas without bacterial or fungal infection. Two and a half years after trephination, the surgical site was fully healed with no recurrence of the nasal discharge. This is the first report, to our knowledge, of sinus trephination in a toucan and describes the advanced diagnostic and medical and surgical treatment of chronic rhinitis in this case.

Correlates of pathological lesions associated with respiratory cryptosporidiosis prevalence in shot red grouse Lagopus lagopus scotica from moors in northern England

Infection of wild red grouse Lagopus lagopus scotica by Cryptosporidium baileyi was first diagnosed in 2010. Within three years, signs of infection were reported from grouse on half of all grouse moors in northern England, bringing severe concerns of economic losses to grouse shooting. A total of 45,914 red grouse shot from 10 moors in northern England between 2013 and 2018 were visually screened for signs of respiratory cryptosporidiosis. Prevalence varied with age, being twice as high in juveniles (4.5%) as in adults (2.4%). It also varied nine-fold between moors and three-fold between years. Prevalence was highest in grouse shot later in the shooting season. Our results are consistent with the concept that disease incidence is highest in naïve juveniles that have previously not been exposed to infection, with prevalence dropping as birds develop immunity. We found no evidence of increased prevalence over time, and fears of escalated disease prevalence, bringing with it increased mortality and lowered productivity, that may have significant impacts on the economic viability of shoots, have not yet been realized. We recommend continued annual screening for clinical signs amongst shot birds, better hygiene associated with potential reservoirs of infection, and practices that both improve the detection and selective culling of diseased individuals and generally reduce overall grouse densities.

Mycoplasmosis of House Finches ( Haemorhous mexicanus) and California Scrub-Jays ( Aphelocoma californica) in a Wildlife Rehabilitation Facility with Probable Nosocomial Transmission

We describe an investigation of an outbreak of conjunctivitis in juvenile House Finches ( Haemorhous mexicanus) and California Scrub-jays ( Aphelocoma californica) at a central California, US wildlife rehabilitation facility. In late May 2015, the facility began admitting juvenile finches, the majority with normal eyes at intake. In June, with juvenile finches already present, the facility admitted juvenile scrub-jays, all with normal eyes at intake. In July, after conjunctivitis was observed in increasing numbers of juvenile finches and scrub-jays, carcasses were submitted for postmortem examination. Histopathology of five finches and three scrub-jays identified lymphocytic infiltrates in the ocular tissues. Conjunctival swabs from 87% (13/15) finches and 33% (4/12) scrub-jays were PCR-positive for Mycoplasma gallisepticum. One finch and two scrub-jays were PCR-positive for Mycoplasma synoviae. Additionally, gene sequencing (16S ribosomal RNA and 16S-23S intergenic spacer region) identified Mycoplasma sturni from 33% (3/9) scrub-jays. This outbreak of conjunctivitis suggested that M. gallisepticum-infected juvenile finches admitted to and maintained in a multispecies nursery likely resulted in transmission within the facility to healthy juvenile finches and scrub-jays. Evidence of other Mycoplasma spp. in finches and scrub-jays indicates that these species are susceptible to infection and may act as carriers. This outbreak highlighted the need for effective triage and biosecurity measures within wildlife rehabilitation facilities.

OCCURRENCE AND RELEVANCE OF MYCOPLASMA STURNI IN FREE-RANGING CORVIDS IN GERMANY

Several Mycoplasma spp. are well-known pathogens in poultry. In birds of prey, White Storks ( Ciconia ciconia ), and some waterfowl (Anatidae, Pelecanidae) species, mycoplasmas occur commonly and seem to be apathogenic or commensal and most likely belong to the physiologic microbial flora of the respiratory tract. In other bird species, such as Common Nightingales ( Luscinia megarhynchos ) and tits (Paridae), Mycoplasma spp. are absent in healthy birds. In corvids, the prevalence and role of Mycoplasma spp. in disease remains unclear. In previous studies, Mycoplasma sturni was detected in diseased corvids; however, those studies included only a limited sample size or preselected individuals. We collected tracheal swabs of 97 free-ranging Corvidae, including 68 randomly selected individuals from hunting bags and 29 birds that had been admitted to a veterinary clinic. Tracheal swabs were examined for Mycoplasma spp. using culture and genus-specific PCR. If Mycoplasma spp. were detected, the species were identified by sequencing the 16S ribosomal (r) RNA gene and 16-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region. Five of 68 (7%) of the hunted birds and nine of 29 (31%) of the birds admitted to the veterinary clinic were PCR positive. In 13 of 14 PCR-positive samples, mycoplasmas were cultured and M. sturni was the only mycoplasmal species identified. None of the positive corvids from the hunting bags had clinical signs, whereas five of nine birds admitted to the veterinary clinic showed apathy, lameness, injuries, or fractures, which may not be associated with mycoplasmal infections. These data support the notion that M. sturni is the Mycoplasma sp. most frequently found in corvids, though its prevalence and ability to cause disease may involve interaction with other aspects of bird health.

Infectious Diseases

The chapter describes bacerial, viral, parasitic and fungal infections commonly detected in pet birds. The chapter includes history, etiology, susceptible hosts, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, lesion, diagnosis, zoonosis, Treatment and control strategy of Tuberculosis, Salmonellosis, Chlamydiosis, Campylobacteriosis, Lyme disease, other bacterial infection, Newcastle disease, Avian Influenza infection, West Nile Virus infection, Usutu virus infection, Avian Borna Virus infection, Beak and feather disease, other viral infection, Toxoplasmosis, Giardiasis, Cryptosporidiosis, other parasitic infection, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis, Other fungal infections.

House Finch (Haemorhous mexicanus) Conjunctivitis, and Mycoplasma spp. Isolated from North American Wild Birds, 1994-2015

Sampling wild birds for mycoplasma culture has been key to the study of House Finch (Haemorhous mexicanus) conjunctivitis, yielding isolates of Mycoplasma gallisepticum spanning the temporal and geographic ranges of disease from emergence to endemicity. Faced with the challenges and costs of sample collection over time and from remote locations for submission to our laboratory for mycoplasma culture, protocols evolved to achieve a practical optimum. Herein we report making M. gallisepticum isolates from House Finches almost every year since the disease emerged in 1994, and we now have 227 isolates from 17 states. Our wild bird host range for M. gallisepticum isolates includes Blue Jay ( Cyanocitta cristata ), American Goldfinch (Spinus tristis), Lesser Goldfinch (Spinus psaltria), Purple Finch (Haemorhous purpureus), Evening Grosbeak ( Coccothraustes vespertinus ), and herein first reports for Western Scrub-jay ( Aphelocoma californica ), and American Crow ( Corvus brachyrhynchos ). By collecting and identifying isolates from birds with clinical signs similar to those of House Finch conjunctivitis, we also expanded the known host range of Mycoplasma sturni and obtained isolates from additional wild bird species. Accumulating evidence shows that a diverse range of wild bird species may carry or have been exposed to M. gallisepticum in the US, as in Europe and Asia. Therefore, the emergence of a pathogenic M. gallisepticum strain in House Finches may actually be the exception that has allowed us to identify the broader epidemiologic picture.

Cryptosporidium infections in birds - a review

Cryptosporidiosis is one of the main protozoan infections in birds. It manifests as either a respiratory or a digestive illness, and it affects a very large number of avian species across several continents. The aim of this review is to report on the main results of studies on cryptosporidiosis among birds and the importance of these results to veterinary medicine and public health.