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Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Community Pharmacy Professionals on Poultry Antibiotic Dispensing, Use, and Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance in Zambia: Implications on Antibiotic Stewardship and WHO AWaRe Classification of Antibiotics. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:antibiotics11091210. [PMID: 36139990 PMCID: PMC9495135 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11091210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Globally, the inappropriate dispensing and use of antibiotics in animals has contributed to the development of bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In Zambia, there is insufficient information among community pharmacy professionals on antibiotic use (ABU) and AMR in food-producing animals. This study assessed community pharmacy professionals’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding poultry antibiotic dispensing, use, and bacterial AMR in the Lusaka district of Zambia. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 178 community pharmacy professionals between February and April 2022 using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using Stata version 17. Of the total participants (n = 178), 51.1% (n = 91) were pharmacists. The most dispensed antibiotic was oxytetracycline, a Watch antibiotic, mainly without prescriptions. Good knowledge of ABU and AMR was associated with work experience for more than one year (p = 0.016), while good practices were associated with male gender (p = 0.039) and work experience of more than one year (p = 0.011). The study found moderate knowledge, positive attitudes, and moderate practices of pharmacy professionals on poultry ABU and AMR. There was high dispensing of poultry antibiotics without prescriptions, which calls for strict implementation of antimicrobial stewardship and surveillance programs in poultry production in Zambia to reduce AMR.
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2
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Au A, Lee H, Ye T, Dave U, Rahman A. Bacteriophages: Combating Antimicrobial Resistance in Food-Borne Bacteria Prevalent in Agriculture. Microorganisms 2021; 10:microorganisms10010046. [PMID: 35056495 PMCID: PMC8778564 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Through recent decades, the subtherapeutic use of antibiotics within agriculture has led to the widespread development of antimicrobial resistance. This problem not only impacts the productivity and sustainability of current agriculture but also has the potential to transfer antimicrobial resistance to human pathogens via the food supply chain. An increasingly popular alternative to antibiotics is bacteriophages to control bacterial diseases. Their unique bactericidal properties make them an ideal alternative to antibiotics, as many countries begin to restrict the usage of antibiotics in agriculture. This review analyses recent evidence from within the past decade on the efficacy of phage therapy on common foodborne pathogens, namely, Escherica coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., and Campylobacter jejuni. This paper highlights the benefits and challenges of phage therapy and reveals the potential for phages to control bacterial populations both in food processing and livestock and the possibility for phages to replace subtherapeutic usage of antibiotics in the agriculture sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnold Au
- Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Toronto, ONRamp@UTE, Toronto, ON M5G 1L5, Canada; (A.A.); (H.L.); (T.Y.); (U.D.)
- A.R. Environmental Solutions, ICUBE-University of Toronto, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Helen Lee
- Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Toronto, ONRamp@UTE, Toronto, ON M5G 1L5, Canada; (A.A.); (H.L.); (T.Y.); (U.D.)
- Faculty of Arts & Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Terry Ye
- Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Toronto, ONRamp@UTE, Toronto, ON M5G 1L5, Canada; (A.A.); (H.L.); (T.Y.); (U.D.)
- A.R. Environmental Solutions, ICUBE-University of Toronto, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Uday Dave
- Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Toronto, ONRamp@UTE, Toronto, ON M5G 1L5, Canada; (A.A.); (H.L.); (T.Y.); (U.D.)
- A.R. Environmental Solutions, ICUBE-University of Toronto, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Azizur Rahman
- Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Toronto, ONRamp@UTE, Toronto, ON M5G 1L5, Canada; (A.A.); (H.L.); (T.Y.); (U.D.)
- A.R. Environmental Solutions, ICUBE-University of Toronto, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
- Correspondence:
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3
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Walker GK, Suyemoto MM, Hull DM, Gall S, Jimenez F, Chen LR, Thakur S, Crespo R, Borst LB. Genomic Characterization of a Nalidixic Acid-Resistant Salmonella Enteritidis Strain Causing Persistent Infections in Broiler Chickens. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:725737. [PMID: 34540936 PMCID: PMC8440904 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.725737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Virulent strains of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis (SE) harbored by poultry can cause disease in poultry flocks and potentially result in human foodborne illness. Two broiler flocks grown a year apart on the same premises experienced mortality throughout the growing period due to septicemic disease caused by SE. Gross lesions predominantly consisted of polyserositis followed by yolk sacculitis, arthritis, osteomyelitis, and spondylitis. Tissues with lesions were cultured yielding 59 SE isolates. These were genotyped by Rep-PCR followed by whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of 15 isolates which were clonal. The strain, SE_TAU19, was further characterized for antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence in a broiler embryo lethality assay. SE_TAU19 was resistant to nalidixic acid and sulfadimethoxine and was virulent to embryos with 100% mortality of all challenged broiler embryos within 3.5 days. Screening the SE_TAU19 whole-genome sequence revealed seven antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes, 120 virulence genes, and two IncF plasmid replicons corresponding to a single, serovar-specific pSEV virulence plasmid. The pef, spv, and rck virulence genes localized to the plasmid sequence assembly. We report phenotypic and genomic features of a virulent SE strain from persistently infected broiler flocks and present a workflow for SE characterization from isolate collection to genome assembly and sequence analysis. Further SE surveillance and investigation of SE virulence in broiler chickens is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grayson K Walker
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - M Mitsu Suyemoto
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Dawn M Hull
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Sesny Gall
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Fernando Jimenez
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Laura R Chen
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Siddhartha Thakur
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Rocio Crespo
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Luke B Borst
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
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4
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Herrera-Sánchez MP, Castro-Vargas RE, Fandiño-de-Rubio LC, Rodríguez-Hernández R, Rondón-Barragán IS. Molecular identification of fluoroquinolone resistance in Salmonella spp. isolated from broiler farms and human samples obtained from two regions in Colombia. Vet World 2021; 14:1767-1773. [PMID: 34475696 PMCID: PMC8404129 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2021.1767-1773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Salmonella is one of the most common foodborne pathogens, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of which is increasing. The aim of this study was to phenotypically and genotypically characterize the fluoroquinolone resistance of Salmonella isolates from broiler and humans in two regions of Colombia. Materials and Methods: Salmonella strains (n=49) were evaluated. The phenotype of antibiotic resistance was assessed by an automated method and agar diffusion method, as well as the presence of the quinolone resistance genes qnrA, qnrB, qnrC, qnrD, qnrS, and aac(6’)-Ib as determined by polymerase chain reaction. Results: Strains were resistant to ciprofloxacin (75%), levofloxacin (57.1%), and enrofloxacin (38.8%). Molecular identification showed that 24 out of 49 strains possessed the qnrB gene (48.9%), while only one isolate from the Santander region possessed the aac(6’)-Ib gene. Regarding Class 1 integron, it was present in 11 out of the 49 strains (22.44%). Conclusion: This study reports the presence of the gene qnrB as well the presence of Class 1 integrons in broiler Salmonella isolates, which may contribute to the resistance to fluoroquinolones.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Paula Herrera-Sánchez
- Research Group in Immunobiology and Pathogenesis, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia
| | - Rafael Enrique Castro-Vargas
- Research Group in Immunobiology and Pathogenesis, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia.,Poultry Research Group, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia
| | - Luz Clemencia Fandiño-de-Rubio
- Poultry Research Group, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia
| | - Roy Rodríguez-Hernández
- Poultry Research Group, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia
| | - Iang Schroniltgen Rondón-Barragán
- Research Group in Immunobiology and Pathogenesis, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia.,Poultry Research Group, Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué 730006299, Tolima, Colombia
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5
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Caffrey N, Agunos A, Gow S, Liljebjelke K, Mainali C, Checkley SL. Salmonella spp. prevalence and antimicrobial resistance in broiler chicken and turkey flocks in Canada from 2013 to 2018. Zoonoses Public Health 2021; 68:719-736. [PMID: 33780135 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella infections are a major human health concern. In the elderly and immunocompromised, infections can be life-threatening and may require antibiotic therapy. Where antibiotic therapy is required, antimicrobials of choice include fluoroquinolones and extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESC). The aim of this study is to utilize data from the Canadian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (CIPARS) to compare the prevalence of Salmonella serovars between broiler chicken and turkey flocks across Canada, and to gain an understanding of the prevalence of resistance to antimicrobials categorized as important to human health. There were 1,596 Salmonella isolates obtained from 514 broiler chicken flocks, and 659 Salmonella isolates obtained from 217 turkey flocks (2013-2018). All isolates were obtained from pooled faecal samples. Among broiler chicken flocks, the top three serovars were Kentucky (n = 573, 36%), Enteritidis (n = 314, 20%) and Heidelberg (n = 127, 8%). Resistance to ceftriaxone among Salmonella ser. Kentucky decreased from 27% in 2013 to 22% in 2018. There was no resistance among Salmonella ser. Enteritidis reported until 2018 when one isolate from British Columbia was resistant to ampicillin, streptomycin, sulphisoxazole and tetracycline. Salmonella ser. Heidelberg resistance to ceftriaxone decreased from 19% in 2013 to 14% in 2018. Among turkey flocks the top three serovars were Uganda (n = 109, 16.5%), Hadar (n = 85, 12%) and Muenchen (n = 66, 10%). No isolates of Salmonella ser. Uganda or Salmonella ser. Muenchen were resistant to any β-lactams. Salmonella ser. Hadar (34/81, 42%) exhibited resistance to ampicillin. There was no resistance to quinolones among turkey isolates. Emerging resistance among Salmonella ser. Enteritidis, and resistance to β-lactams and fluoroquinolones among Salmonella ser. Kentucky from broilers are cause for concern as these classes of antimicrobials are important for treatment of salmonellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niamh Caffrey
- Department Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Agnes Agunos
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Sheryl Gow
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Karen Liljebjelke
- Department Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Chunu Mainali
- Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Epidemiology Unit, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Sylvia L Checkley
- Department Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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6
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Veltman T, Jordan D, McDevitt CA, Bell J, Howden BP, Valcanis M, O'Dea M, Abraham S, Scott P, Kovac JH, Chia R, Combs B, Chousalkar K, Wilson T, Trott DJ. Absence of high priority critically important antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella sp. isolated from Australian commercial egg layer environments. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 340:109042. [PMID: 33461002 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The development of antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens is a growing public health concern. This study was undertaken to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica isolated from the Australian commercial egg layer industry. S. enterica subspecies enterica (n=307) isolated from Australian commercial layer flock environments (2015-2018) were obtained from reference, research and State Government laboratories from six Australian states. All Salmonella isolates were serotyped. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) for 16 antimicrobial agents was performed by broth microdilution. Antimicrobial resistance genes and sequence types (STs) were identified in significant isolates by whole genome sequencing (WGS). Three main serotypes were detected, S. Typhimurium (n=61, 19.9%), S. Senftenburg (n=45, 14.7%) and S. Agona (n=37, 12.1%). AST showed 293/307 (95.4%) isolates were susceptible to all tested antimicrobial agents and all isolates were susceptible to amoxicillin-clavulanate, azithromycin, ceftiofur, ceftriaxone, ciprofloxacin, colistin, florfenicol, gentamicin, kanamycin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Low levels of non-susceptibility were observed to streptomycin (2.3%, n=7), sulfisoxazole (2.0%, n=6), chloramphenicol (1.3%, n=4) and tetracycline (1.0%, n=3). Very low levels of non-susceptibility were observed to ampicillin (2/307; 0.7%) and cefoxitin (2/307; 0.7%). Two isolates (S. Havana and S. Montevideo), exhibited multidrug-resistant phenotypes to streptomycin, sulfisoxazole and tetracycline and possessed corresponding antimicrobial resistance genes (aadA4, aac(6')-Iaa, sul1, tetB). One S. Typhimurium isolate was resistant to ampicillin and tetracycline, and possessed both tetA and blaTEM-1B. WGS also identified these isolates as belonging to ST4 (S. Montevideo), ST578 (S. Havana) and ST19 (S. Typhimurium). The absence of resistance to highest priority critically important antimicrobials as well as the extremely low level of AMR generally among Australian commercial egg layer Salmonella isolates likely reflect Australia's conservative antimicrobial registration policy in food-producing animals and low rates of antimicrobial use within the industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Veltman
- Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia; Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - David Jordan
- Department of Primary Industries, New South Wales Government, Wollongbar, Australia
| | - Christopher A McDevitt
- Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia; Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Jan Bell
- Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia; Research Centre for Infectious Diseases, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Benjamin P Howden
- Microbiological Diagnostic Unit Public Health Laboratory, The University of Melbourne, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Mary Valcanis
- Microbiological Diagnostic Unit Public Health Laboratory, The University of Melbourne, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Mark O'Dea
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Australia
| | - Sam Abraham
- Antimicrobial Resistance and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Australia
| | | | - Jessica H Kovac
- Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia
| | | | - Barry Combs
- OzFoodNet, Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Perth, Australia
| | - Kapil Chousalkar
- Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia
| | | | - Darren J Trott
- Australian Centre for Antimicrobial Resistance Ecology, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, Australia.
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7
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Herrera-Sánchez MP, Rodríguez-Hernández R, Rondón-Barragán IS. Molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance and enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR as a molecular typing tool for Salmonella spp. isolated from poultry and humans. Vet World 2020; 13:1771-1779. [PMID: 33132588 PMCID: PMC7566269 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.1771-1779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Salmonella spp. are one of the most important food-borne pathogens in the world, emerging as a major public health concern. Moreover, multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains have been isolated from salmonellosis outbreaks, which compromise its treatment success. This study was conducted to characterize the phenotypic and genotypic antibiotic resistance profile of Salmonella strains isolated from broilers and humans from the regions of Tolima and Santander (Colombia). Materials and Methods: Salmonella spp. strains (n=49) were confirmed through molecular detection by amplification of the invA gene. Phenotypic antibiotic resistance was determined by the automated method and the agar diffusion method, and the presence of resistance genes was evaluated by PCR. Genotypic characterization was conducted using the enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR method, from which a dendrogram was generated and the possible phylogenetic relationships were established. Results: Salmonella isolates were classified as MDR strains exhibiting resistance to four antibiotic classes, penicillins, aminoglycosides, sulfonamides, and cephalosporins, and the human strains were resistant to gentamicin. At the genotypic level, the isolates contained the genes blaCMY2, blaCTX-M, blaPSE-1, blaTEM, aadA1, srtB, dfrA1, sul2, and floR. The genotyping results obtained by ERIC-PCR allowed the grouping of strains according to the source of isolation. Conclusion: The Salmonella spp. strains exhibited resistance to multiple antibiotics, as well as multiple genes associated with them, and the ERIC-PCR method was a technique that was helpful in generating clusters with biological significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Paula Herrera-Sánchez
- Research Group in Immunology and Pathogenesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia
| | - Roy Rodríguez-Hernández
- Poultry Research Group, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia
| | - Iang Schroniltgen Rondón-Barragán
- Research Group in Immunology and Pathogenesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia.,Poultry Research Group, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, University of Tolima, Santa Helena Highs, Ibagué, Tolima, Colombia
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8
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Silveira L, Nunes A, Pista Â, Isidro J, Belo Correia C, Saraiva M, Batista R, Castanheira I, Machado J, Gomes JP. Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Isolates of Salmonella enterica Serovars Heidelberg and Minnesota from Fresh Poultry Meat Imported to Portugal. Microb Drug Resist 2020; 27:87-98. [PMID: 32460607 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2019.0384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovars Heidelberg and Minnesota frequently display several genetic mobile elements making them potential spreaders of resistance genes. Here, we phenotypically determined the antibiotic resistance profile and subsequently performed whole-genome sequencing on 36 isolates recovered from samples of fresh poultry meat, within the Portuguese Official Inspection Plan for Imported Foodstuffs. Several isolates of both serovars showed high genetic relatedness either with isolates from raw poultry meat imported to the Netherlands from Brazil or with isolates from samples from the broiler production chain in Brazil. The multidrug-resistant (MDR) character was common to the vast majority (94.4%) of isolates from both serovars, and several isolates carried the plasmid IncA/C2 containing the β-lactamase gene blaCMY-2 and IncX1 containing a type IV secretion system. These results somehow mirror the scenario observed in the Netherlands, showing the introduction, through fresh imported poultry meat in compliance with European legislation, of MDR Salmonella enterica serovars Heidelberg and Minnesota in Europe, with the potential spread of resistance markers. These data suggest the need to revise the hygiene criteria for foodstuffs monitoring before its placement on the market, with the determination of the resistome being an invaluable contribute to limit the dissemination of resistance markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonor Silveira
- National Reference Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Infections, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alexandra Nunes
- Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ângela Pista
- National Reference Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Infections, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana Isidro
- Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Cristina Belo Correia
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Reference Unit, Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Margarida Saraiva
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Reference Unit, Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health, Porto, Portugal
| | - Rita Batista
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Reference Unit, Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Isabel Castanheira
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Reference Unit, Department of Food and Nutrition, National Institute of Health, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Jorge Machado
- National Reference Laboratory of Gastrointestinal Infections, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Gomes
- Bioinformatics Unit, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health (INSA), Lisbon, Portugal
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9
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Walker GK, Suyemoto MM, Borst LB, Brake J. Research Note: Repetitive element-based polymerase chain reaction genotyping improves efficiency of Salmonella surveillance in a model broiler production system. Poult Sci 2020; 99:2684-2689. [PMID: 32359605 PMCID: PMC7597447 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2019.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic relatedness and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Salmonella isolated from poultry and their environment were determined. One broiler breeder flock (BBF1) and 2 broiler flocks (BF1 and BF2) were reared over a 1.75-year period on the same poultry research farm. Hatching eggs were obtained from BBF1 to produce BF1 chicks, while BF2 chicks were progeny of a separate, unsampled broiler breeder flock. BF1 and BF2 were reared in the same housing facilities but 6 mo apart. Salmonella isolates were collected via litter sock sampling (BF1), cecal excision (BF1 and BF2), or cloacal swabs (BBF1). Serotyping identified Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Altona (SA) in BBF1 and S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Senftenberg (SS) in BF1 and BF2. Genotypic fingerprinting was achieved with Rep-PCR using the (GTG)5 primer and revealed sequence homology among Senftenberg isolates from BF1 and BF2. For each isolate, the minimum inhibitory concentration was determined for 27 antimicrobial agents using Sensititre plates with formularies specific to antimicrobials used in poultry production or those used to control gram negative pathogens. Isolates from the 3 flocks were resistant to clindamycin, erythromycin, novobiocin, penicillin, and tylosin tartrate and demonstrated intermediate resistance to azithromycin, florfenicol, and spectinomycin. These data demonstrated that serovar Altona and Senftenberg were harbored by poultry, the latter appeared to persist in broiler flocks, and both serotypes shared similar patterns of antimicrobial susceptibility in an integrated research operation. In the case of multiple Salmonella isolates, combining genotypic fingerprinting methods with serotyping of representative isolates would reduce the number of samples required for serotyping and more clearly identify relatedness of isolates. These methods facilitate effective surveillance in poultry production systems, thus allowing for implementation of precise Salmonella control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- G K Walker
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh 27607.
| | - M M Suyemoto
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh 27607
| | - L B Borst
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh 27607
| | - J Brake
- Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695
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10
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Deblais L, Lorentz B, Scaria J, Nagaraja KV, Nisar M, Lauer D, Voss S, Rajashekara G. Comparative Genomic Studies of Salmonella Heidelberg Isolated From Chicken- and Turkey-Associated Farm Environmental Samples. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1841. [PMID: 30147682 PMCID: PMC6097345 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is one of the leading causes of human foodborne gastroenteritis in the United States. In addition, Salmonella contributes to morbidity and mortality in livestock. The control of Salmonella is an increasing problematic issue in livestock production due to lack of effective control methods and the constant adaptation of Salmonella to new management practices, which is often related to horizontal acquisition of virulence or antibiotic resistance genes. Salmonella enterica serotype Heidelberg is one of the most commonly isolated serotypes in all poultry production systems in North America. Emergence and persistence of multi-drug resistant Salmonella Heidelberg isolates further impact the poultry production and public health. We hypothesized that distinct poultry production environments affect Salmonella genomic content, and by consequence its survival and virulence abilities. This study compared the genomic composition of S. Heidelberg isolated from environmental samples (19 chicken and 12 turkey isolates) of different breeder farms (16 chicken and 8 turkey farms) in the Midwest, United States. Whole genome comparison of 31 genomes using RAST and SEED identified differences in specific sub-systems in isolates between the chicken- and turkey-associated farm environmental samples. Genes associated with the type IV secretion system (n = 12) and conjugative transfer (n = 3) were absent in turkey farm isolates compared to the chicken ones (p-value < 0.01); Further, turkey farm isolates were enriched in prophage proteins (n = 53; p-value < 0.01). Complementary studies using PHASTER showed that prophages were all Caudovirales phages and were more represented in turkey environmental isolates than the chicken isolates. This study corroborates that isolates from distinct farm environment show differences in S. Heidelberg genome content related to horizontal transfer between bacteria or through viral infections. Complementary microbiome studies of these samples would provide critical insights on sources of these variations. Overall, our findings enhance the understanding of Salmonella genome plasticity and may aid in the development of future effective management practices to control Salmonella.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Deblais
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, OARDC, Wooster, OH, United States.,Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, OARDC, Wooster, OH, United States
| | - Benjamin Lorentz
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, OARDC, Wooster, OH, United States
| | - Joy Scaria
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, United States
| | - Kakambi V Nagaraja
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - Muhammad Nisar
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - Dale Lauer
- Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, University of Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Minnesota Board of Animal Health, Willmar, MN, United States
| | - Shauna Voss
- Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, University of Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Minnesota Board of Animal Health, Willmar, MN, United States
| | - Gireesh Rajashekara
- Food Animal Health Research Program, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, OARDC, Wooster, OH, United States
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11
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Nisar M, Kassem II, Rajashekara G, Goyal SM, Lauer D, Voss S, Nagaraja KV. Genotypic relatedness and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella Heidelberg isolated from chickens and turkeys in the midwestern United States. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:370-375. [PMID: 28430086 DOI: 10.1177/1040638717690784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Salmonella is one of the most common causes of foodborne illnesses in humans in the United States, and domestic poultry is considered an important source of this pathogen. Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Heidelberg is the fourth most commonly reported Salmonella from retail meats and food animals in the United States. We assessed the genotypes and antimicrobial resistance phenotypes of Salmonella Heidelberg isolated from various chicken and turkey hatcheries and breeder farms in the Midwest. The genotypes of 33 S. Heidelberg isolates from chickens ( n = 19) and turkeys ( n = 14) were compared using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis. Cluster analysis of the fingerprints showed that the majority of the chicken isolates grouped together with 87% similarity; those from turkeys clustered with 88% similarity. Similarity between chicken and turkey isolates was also high (86%). Isolates from turkeys were generally more genetically diverse than those from chickens. Antimicrobial susceptibility analysis detected resistance to sulfisoxazole (36% of the isolates), streptomycin (33%), gentamicin (27%), tetracycline (24%), ampicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (15%), cefoxitin (12%), ceftriaxone and ceftiofur (12%), and chloramphenicol (9%). None of the isolates was resistant to azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, or nalidixic acid. Although the number of the isolates was limited in our study, we conclude that S. Heidelberg isolates from the same host generally clustered together and that a considerable number of the isolates were resistant to a number of antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Nisar
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
| | - Issmat I Kassem
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
| | - Gireesh Rajashekara
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
| | - Sagar M Goyal
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
| | - Dale Lauer
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
| | - Shauna Voss
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
| | - Kakambi V Nagaraja
- Departments of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences (Nisar, Nagaraja) and Veterinary Population Medicine (Goyal), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN.,Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH (Kassem, Rajashekara).,Minnesota Poultry Testing Laboratory, Willmar, MN (Lauer, Voss)
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12
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Salem WM, Shibat El-Hamed DMW, Sayed WF, Elamary RB. Alterations in virulence and antibiotic resistant genes of multidrug-resistant Salmonella serovars isolated from poultry: The bactericidal efficacy of Allium sativum. Microb Pathog 2017; 108:91-100. [PMID: 28479511 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W M Salem
- South Valley University, Faculty of Science, Botany Department, 83523, Qena, Egypt.
| | | | - W F Sayed
- South Valley University, Faculty of Science, Botany Department, 83523, Qena, Egypt
| | - R B Elamary
- South Valley University, Faculty of Science, Botany Department, 83523, Qena, Egypt
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13
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Helke KL, McCrackin MA, Galloway AM, Poole AZ, Salgado CD, Marriott BP. Effects of antimicrobial use in agricultural animals on drug-resistant foodborne salmonellosis in humans: A systematic literature review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 57:472-488. [PMID: 27602884 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1230088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Controversy continues concerning antimicrobial use in food animals and its relationship to drug-resistant infections in humans. We systematically reviewed published literature for evidence of a relationship between antimicrobial use in agricultural animals and drug-resistant meat or dairy-borne non-typhoidal salmonellosis in humans. Based on publications from the United States (U.S.), Canada, and Denmark from January 2010 to July 2014, 858 articles received title and abstract review, 104 met study criteria for full article review with 68 retained for which data are presented. Antibiotic exposure in both cattle and humans found an increased likelihood of Salmonella colonization, whereas in chickens, animals not exposed to antibiotics (organic) were more likely to be Salmonella positive and those that had antibiotic exposure were more likely to harbor antimicrobial resistant Salmonella organisms. In swine literature, only tylosin exposure was examined and no correlation was found among exposure, Salmonella colonization, or antimicrobial resistance. No studies that identified farm antimicrobial use also traced antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella from farm to fork.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristi L Helke
- a Department of Comparative Medicine , Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA
| | - M A McCrackin
- a Department of Comparative Medicine , Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA.,b Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center Department of Research Service , Charleston , South Carolina , USA
| | - Ashley M Galloway
- c Department of Medicine , Nutrition Section, Division of Gastroenterology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA
| | - Ann Z Poole
- c Department of Medicine , Nutrition Section, Division of Gastroenterology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA
| | - Cassandra D Salgado
- d Department of Medicine , Infectious Disease Division, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA
| | - Bernadette P Marriott
- c Department of Medicine , Nutrition Section, Division of Gastroenterology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA.,e Department of Psychiatry , Nutrition Section, Division of Gastroenterology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , South Carolina , USA
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14
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Realpe-Delgado ME, Muñoz-Delgado ÁB, Donado-Godoy P, Rey-Ramírez LM, Díaz-Guevara PL, Arévalo- Mayorga SA. Epidemiología de Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes y Campylobacter spp., en la cadena productiva avícola. IATREIA 2016. [DOI: 10.17533/udea.iatreia.v29n4a01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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15
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Simmons K, Islam MR, Rempel H, Block G, Topp E, Diarra MS. Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichia fergusonii Isolated from Broiler Chickens. J Food Prot 2016; 79:929-38. [PMID: 27296596 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-15-575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the antibiotic resistance of Escherichia fergusonii isolated from commercial broiler chicken farms. A total of 245 isolates from cloacal and cecal samples of 28- to 36-day-old chickens were collected from 32 farms. Isolates were identified using PCR, and their susceptibility to 16 antibiotics was determined by disk diffusion assay. All isolates were susceptible to meropenem, amikacin, and ciprofloxacin. The most common resistances were against ampicillin (75.1%), streptomycin (62.9%), and tetracycline (57.1%). Of the 184 ampicillin-resistant isolates, 127 were investigated using a DNA microarray carrying 75 probes for antibiotic resistance genetic determinants. Of these 127 isolates, the β-lactamase blaCMY2, blaTEM, blaACT, blaSHV, and blaCTX-M-15 genes were detected in 120 (94.5%), 31 (24.4%), 8 (6.3%), 6 (4.7%), and 4 (3.2%) isolates, respectively. Other detected genes included those conferring resistance to aminoglycosides (aadA1, strA, strB), trimethoprims (dfrV, dfrA1), tetracyclines (tetA, tetB, tetC, tetE), and sulfonamides (sul1, sul2). Class 1 integron was found in 35 (27.6%) of the ampicillin-resistant isolates. However, our data showed that the tested E. fergusonii did not carry any carbapenemase blaOXA genes. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis revealed that the selected ampicillin-resistant E. fergusonii isolates were genetically diverse. The present study indicates that the monitoring of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria should include enteric bacteria such as E. fergusonii, which could be a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes. The detection of isolates harboring extended-spectrum β-lactamase genes, particularly blaCTX-M-15, in this work suggests that further investigations on the occurrence of such genes in broilers are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Simmons
- Agassiz Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada V0M 1A0
| | - M Rashedul Islam
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, AAFC, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 5C9
| | - Heidi Rempel
- Agassiz Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada V0M 1A0
| | - Glenn Block
- Agassiz Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada V0M 1A0
| | - Edward Topp
- London Research and Development Centre, AAFC, London, Ontario, Canada N5V 4T3
| | - Moussa S Diarra
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, AAFC, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 5C9.
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16
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Mir IA, Kashyap SK, Maherchandani S. Isolation, serotype diversity and antibiogram of Salmonella enterica isolated from different species of poultry in India. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtb.2015.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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17
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Diarra MS, Malouin F. Antibiotics in Canadian poultry productions and anticipated alternatives. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:282. [PMID: 24987390 PMCID: PMC4060556 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of antibiotics in food-producing animals has significantly increased animal health by lowering mortality and the incidence of diseases. Antibiotics also have largely contributed to increase productivity of farms. However, antibiotic usage in general and relevance of non-therapeutic antibiotics (growth promoters) in feed need to be reevaluated especially because bacterial pathogens of humans and animals have developed and shared a variety of antibiotic resistance mechanisms that can easily be spread within microbial communities. In Canada, poultry production involves more than 2600 regulated chicken producers who have access to several antibiotics approved as feed additives for poultry. Feed recipes and mixtures vary greatly geographically and from one farm to another, making links between use of a specific antibiotic feed additive and production yields or selection of specific antibiotic-resistant bacteria difficult to establish. Many on-farm studies have revealed the widespread presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in broiler chickens. While some reports linked the presence of antibiotic-resistant organisms to the use of feed supplemented with antibiotics, no recent studies could clearly demonstrate the benefit of antimicrobial growth promoters on performance and production yields. With modern biosecurity and hygienic practices, there is a genuine concern that intensive utilization of antibiotics or use of antimicrobial growth promoters in feed might no longer be useful. Public pressure and concerns about food and environmental safety (antibiotic residues, antibiotic-resistant pathogens) have driven researchers to actively look for alternatives to antibiotics. Some of the alternatives include pre- and probiotics, organic acids and essential oils. We will describe here the properties of some bioactive molecules, like those found in cranberry, which have shown interesting polyvalent antibacterial and immuno-stimulatory activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moussa S. Diarra
- Pacific Agri-Food Research Center, Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaAgassiz, BC, Canada
| | - François Malouin
- Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Centre d'Étude et de Valorisation de la Diversité Microbienne, Université de SherbrookeSherbrooke, QC, Canada
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