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New Iron Metabolic Pathways and Chelation Targeting Strategies Affecting the Treatment of All Types and Stages of Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213990. [PMID: 36430469 PMCID: PMC9696688 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There is new and increasing evidence from in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies implicating the pivotal role of iron and associated metabolic pathways in the initiation, progression and development of cancer and in cancer metastasis. New metabolic and toxicity mechanisms and pathways, as well as genomic, transcription and other factors, have been linked to cancer and many are related to iron. Accordingly, a number of new targets for iron chelators have been identified and characterized in new anticancer strategies, in addition to the classical restriction of/reduction in iron supply, the inhibition of transferrin iron delivery, the inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase in DNA synthesis and high antioxidant potential. The new targets include the removal of excess iron from iron-laden macrophages, which affects anticancer activity; the modulation of ferroptosis; ferritin iron removal and the control of hyperferritinemia; the inhibition of hypoxia related to the role of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF); modulation of the function of new molecular species such as STEAP4 metalloreductase and the metastasis suppressor N-MYC downstream-regulated gene-1 (NDRG1); modulation of the metabolic pathways of oxidative stress damage affecting mitochondrial function, etc. Many of these new, but also previously known associated iron metabolic pathways appear to affect all stages of cancer, as well as metastasis and drug resistance. Iron-chelating drugs and especially deferiprone (L1), has been shown in many recent studies to fulfill the role of multi-target anticancer drug linked to the above and also other iron targets, and has been proposed for phase II trials in cancer patients. In contrast, lipophilic chelators and their iron complexes are proposed for the induction of ferroptosis in some refractory or recurring tumors in drug resistance and metastasis where effective treatments are absent. There is a need to readdress cancer therapy and include therapeutic strategies targeting multifactorial processes, including the application of multi-targeting drugs involving iron chelators and iron-chelator complexes. New therapeutic protocols including drug combinations with L1 and other chelating drugs could increase anticancer activity, decrease drug resistance and metastasis, improve treatments, reduce toxicity and increase overall survival in cancer patients.
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Sterling JK, Kam TI, Guttha S, Park H, Baumann B, Mehrabani-Tabari AA, Schultz H, Anderson B, Alnemri A, Chou SC, Troncoso JC, Dawson VL, Dawson TM, Dunaief JL. Interleukin-6 triggers toxic neuronal iron sequestration in response to pathological α-synuclein. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110358. [PMID: 35172141 PMCID: PMC8898592 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation and accumulation drive neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). The substantia nigra of patients with PD contains excess iron, yet the underlying mechanism accounting for this iron accumulation is unclear. Here, we show that misfolded α-syn activates microglia, which release interleukin 6 (IL-6). IL-6, via its trans-signaling pathway, induces changes in the neuronal iron transcriptome that promote ferrous iron uptake and decrease cellular iron export via a pathway we term the cellular iron sequestration response, or CISR. The brains of patients with PD exhibit molecular signatures of the IL-6-mediated CISR. Genetic deletion of IL-6, or treatment with the iron chelator deferiprone, reduces pathological α-syn toxicity in a mouse model of sporadic PD. These data suggest that IL-6-induced CISR leads to toxic neuronal iron accumulation, contributing to synuclein-induced neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob K Sterling
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Tae-In Kam
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Diana Helis Henry and Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA 70130, USA
| | - Samyuktha Guttha
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Hyejin Park
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Bailey Baumann
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Amir A Mehrabani-Tabari
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Hannah Schultz
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Brandon Anderson
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ahab Alnemri
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Shih-Ching Chou
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Juan C Troncoso
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pathology (Neuropathology), Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Diana Helis Henry and Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA 70130, USA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Diana Helis Henry and Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA 70130, USA.
| | - Joshua L Dunaief
- Scheie Eye Institute, F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Balakirev N, Maximov V, Deltsov A. Ways to develop and improve a pharmacologically active compound based on a polymer complex for the prevention and treatment of microelementosis in fur farming. BIO WEB OF CONFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1051/bioconf/20202700082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The analysis of iron-containing products made in Russia for veterinarian use against iron deficiency anaemia in fur farming was carried out. The absence of hydroxide-polymaltose iron complexes on the pharmaceutical market has been shown and their promise as the main components for oral preparations has been substantiated. In this context, the Collective of the Department of Physiology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, FSBEI HE MGAVMiB-MVA named after K.I. Skryabin, in collaboration with the research and production company A-BIO conducted research to develop and study the effect of pharmacologically active compounds based on a polymer (iron-hydroxide polymantose) complex for treatment and prevention of microelemetosis in the fur animals.
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Angelova DM, Brown DR. Microglia and the aging brain: are senescent microglia the key to neurodegeneration? J Neurochem 2019; 151:676-688. [PMID: 31478208 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The single largest risk factor for etiology of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease is increased age. Therefore, understanding the changes that occur as a result of aging is central to any possible prevention or cure for such conditions. Microglia, the resident brain glial population most associated with both protection of neurons in health and their destruction is disease, could be a significant player in age related changes. Microglia can adopt an aberrant phenotype sometimes referred to either as dystrophic or senescent. While aged microglia have been frequently identified in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, there is no conclusive evidence that proves a causal role. This has been hampered by a lack of models of aged microglia. We have recently generated a model of senescent microglia based on the observation that all dystrophic microglia show iron overload. Iron-overloading cultured microglia causes them to take on a senescent phenotype and can cause changes in models of neurodegeneration similar to those observed in patients. This review considers how this model could be used to determine the role of senescent microglia in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dafina M Angelova
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - David R Brown
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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Tuning the Anti(myco)bacterial Activity of 3-Hydroxy-4-pyridinone Chelators through Fluorophores. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2018; 11:ph11040110. [PMID: 30347802 PMCID: PMC6316862 DOI: 10.3390/ph11040110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Controlling the sources of Fe available to pathogens is one of the possible strategies that can be successfully used by novel antibacterial drugs. We focused our interest on the design of chelators to address Mycobacterium avium infections. Taking into account the molecular structure of mycobacterial siderophores and considering that new chelators must be able to compete for Fe(III), we selected ligands of the 3-hydroxy-4-pyridinone class to achieve our purpose. After choosing the type of chelating unit it was also our objective to design chelators that could be monitored inside the cell and for that reason we designed chelators that could be functionalized with fluorophores. We didn’t realize at the time that the incorporation a fluorophore, to allow spectroscopic detection, would be so relevant for the antimycobacterial effect or to determine the affinity of the chelators towards biological membranes. From a biophysical perspective, this is a fascinating illustration of the fact that functionalization of a molecule with a particular label may lead to a change in its membrane permeation properties and result in a dramatic change in biological activity. For that reason we believe it is interesting to give a critical account of our entire work in this area and justify the statement “to label means to change”. New perspectives regarding combined therapeutic approaches and the use of rhodamine B conjugates to target closely related problems such as bacterial resistance and biofilm production are also discussed.
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Hepcidin-induced hypoferremia is a critical host defense mechanism against the siderophilic bacterium Vibrio vulnificus. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 17:47-57. [PMID: 25590758 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Revised: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Hereditary hemochromatosis, an iron overload disease caused by a deficiency in the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin, is associated with lethal infections by siderophilic bacteria. To elucidate the mechanisms of this susceptibility, we infected wild-type and hepcidin-deficient mice with the siderophilic bacterium Vibrio vulnificus and found that hepcidin deficiency results in increased bacteremia and decreased survival of infected mice, which can be partially ameliorated by dietary iron depletion. Additionally, timely administration of hepcidin agonists to hepcidin-deficient mice induces hypoferremia that decreases bacterial loads and rescues these mice from death, regardless of initial iron levels. Studies of Vibrio vulnificus growth ex vivo show that high iron sera from hepcidin-deficient mice support extraordinarily rapid bacterial growth and that this is inhibited in hypoferremic sera. Our findings demonstrate that hepcidin-mediated hypoferremia is a host defense mechanism against siderophilic pathogens and suggest that hepcidin agonists may improve infection outcomes in patients with hereditary hemochromatosis or thalassemia.
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Kell DB, Pretorius E. The simultaneous occurrence of both hypercoagulability and hypofibrinolysis in blood and serum during systemic inflammation, and the roles of iron and fibrin(ogen). Integr Biol (Camb) 2015; 7:24-52. [PMID: 25335120 DOI: 10.1039/c4ib00173g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Although the two phenomena are usually studied separately, we summarise a considerable body of literature to the effect that a great many diseases involve (or are accompanied by) both an increased tendency for blood to clot (hypercoagulability) and the resistance of the clots so formed (hypofibrinolysis) to the typical, 'healthy' or physiological lysis. We concentrate here on the terminal stages of fibrin formation from fibrinogen, as catalysed by thrombin. Hypercoagulability goes hand in hand with inflammation, and is strongly influenced by the fibrinogen concentration (and vice versa); this can be mediated via interleukin-6. Poorly liganded iron is a significant feature of inflammatory diseases, and hypofibrinolysis may change as a result of changes in the structure and morphology of the clot, which may be mimicked in vitro, and may be caused in vivo, by the presence of unliganded iron interacting with fibrin(ogen) during clot formation. Many of these phenomena are probably caused by electrostatic changes in the iron-fibrinogen system, though hydroxyl radical (OH˙) formation can also contribute under both acute and (more especially) chronic conditions. Many substances are known to affect the nature of fibrin polymerised from fibrinogen, such that this might be seen as a kind of bellwether for human or plasma health. Overall, our analysis demonstrates the commonalities underpinning a variety of pathologies as seen in both hypercoagulability and hypofibrinolysis, and offers opportunities for both diagnostics and therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas B Kell
- School of Chemistry and The Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131, Princess St, Manchester M1 7DN, Lancs, UK.
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Hadziahmetovic M, Song Y, Wolkow N, Iacovelli J, Kautz L, Roth MP, Dunaief JL. Bmp6 regulates retinal iron homeostasis and has altered expression in age-related macular degeneration. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 179:335-48. [PMID: 21703414 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Iron-induced oxidative stress causes hereditary macular degeneration in patients with aceruloplasminemia. Similarly, retinal iron accumulation in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) may exacerbate the disease. The cause of retinal iron accumulation in AMD is poorly understood. Given that bone morphogenetic protein 6 (Bmp6) is a major regulator of systemic iron, we examined the role of Bmp6 in retinal iron regulation and in AMD pathogenesis. Bmp6 was detected in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a major site of pathology in AMD. In cultured RPE cells, Bmp6 was down-regulated by oxidative stress and up-regulated by iron. Intraocular Bmp6 protein injection in mice up-regulated retinal hepcidin, an iron regulatory hormone, and altered retinal labile iron levels. Bmp6(-/-) mice had age-dependent retinal iron accumulation and degeneration. Postmortem RPE from patients with early AMD exhibited decreased Bmp6 levels. Because oxidative stress is associated with AMD pathogenesis and down-regulates Bmp6 in cultured RPE cells, the diminished Bmp6 levels observed in RPE cells in early AMD may contribute to iron build-up in AMD. This may in turn propagate a vicious cycle of oxidative stress and iron accumulation, exacerbating AMD and other diseases with hereditary or acquired iron excess.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majda Hadziahmetovic
- F.M. Kirby Center for Molecular Ophthalmology, Scheie Eye Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Hadziahmetovic M, Song Y, Ponnuru P, Iacovelli J, Hunter A, Haddad N, Beard J, Connor JR, Vaulont S, Dunaief JL. Age-dependent retinal iron accumulation and degeneration in hepcidin knockout mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52:109-18. [PMID: 20811044 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.10-6113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Iron dysregulation can cause retinal disease, yet retinal iron regulatory mechanisms are incompletely understood. The peptide hormone hepcidin (Hepc) limits iron uptake from the intestine by triggering degradation of the iron transporter ferroportin (Fpn). Given that Hepc is expressed in the retina and Fpn is expressed in cells constituting the blood-retinal barrier, the authors tested whether the retina may produce Hepc to limit retinal iron import. METHODS Retinas of Hepc(-/-) mice were analyzed by histology, autofluorescence spectral analysis, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, Perls' iron stain, and immunofluorescence to assess iron-handling proteins. Retinal Hepc mRNA was evaluated through qPCR after intravitreal iron injection. Mechanisms of retinal Hepc upregulation were tested by Western blot analysis. A retinal capillary endothelial cell culture system was used to assess the effect of exogenous Hepc on Fpn. RESULTS Hepc(-/-) mice experienced age-dependent increases in retinal iron followed by retinal degeneration with autofluorescent RPE, photoreceptor death, and subretinal neovascularization. Hepc(-/-) mice had increased Fpn immunoreactivity in vascular endothelial cells. Conversely, in cultured retinal capillary endothelial cells, exogenous Hepc decreased both Fpn levels and iron transport. The retina can sense increased iron levels, upregulating Hepc after phosphorylation of extracellular signal regulated kinases. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that Hepc is essential for retinal iron regulation. In the absence of Hepc, retinal degeneration occurs. Increases in Hepc mRNA levels after intravitreal iron injection combined with Hepc-mediated decreases in iron export from cultured retinal capillary endothelial cells suggest that the retina may use Hepc for its tissue-specific iron regulation.
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del Castillo-Rueda A, Khosravi-Shahi P. Papel del hierro en la interacción entre el huésped y el patógeno. Med Clin (Barc) 2010; 134:452-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medcli.2009.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2009] [Revised: 11/04/2009] [Accepted: 11/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Atrash HK, Parker CS. The public health response to blood disorders. Am J Prev Med 2010; 38:S451-5. [PMID: 20331942 DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2010.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2009] [Revised: 12/17/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Nonmalignant blood disorders meet all criteria for qualifying, as a group, as a very important public health problem with serious morbidities affecting over 1 million Americans every year, not including an additional 8 million individuals suffering from anemia. Many of these conditions and the morbidities and mortalities associated with them are, to a large extent, preventable. Further, the changing demographic composition of the American population is sure to increase the number of individuals affected by these conditions. Yet, nonmalignant blood disorders have not been recognized as important public health priorities. Immediate action is needed to meet the increasing challenge of blood disorders in public health. We propose a national, comprehensive, organized, coordinated, institutionalized, sustainable public health response to blood disorders based on the three core functions and the ten essential services of public health. Immediate action needs to be taken to improve surveillance and monitoring, increase public and provider awareness, increase the use of evidence-based practices, and enhance epidemiologic research on the causes, prevention, and treatment of conditions resulting in adverse outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hani K Atrash
- Division of Blood Disorders, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, CDC, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Liu Y, Jacobs HK, Gopalan AS. Reactions of N-benzyloxycarbamate derivatives with stabilized carbon nucleophiles: a new synthetic approach to polyhydroxamic acids and other hydroxamate-containing mixed ligand systems. J Org Chem 2009; 74:782-8. [PMID: 19063593 PMCID: PMC2785224 DOI: 10.1021/jo802410u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Hydroxamic acids are an important class of chelators of hard metal ions such as Fe(III), which have found applications in therapeutic, diagnostic, and separation chemistry. Hence, methods for their preparation and incorporation into various matrices are important. A new strategy for the preparation of hydroxamic acids that uses readily available N-benzyloxy carbamic acid ethyl ester, 1, has been developed. N-Alkylation of 1 occurs readily to give N-alkyl-N-benzyloxy carbamates, 2, which react with a variety of stabilized carbon nucleophiles to give functionalized protected hydroxamic acids, 3, in good to excellent yields. The O-protected hydroxamate intermediates 3 can be further alkylated with halides to access a variety of potential metal binding hosts. The usefulness of this methodology has been demonstrated by the synthesis of a novel trihydroxamic acid 6, mixed ligand systems 9 and 12, and the macrocyclic dihydroxamic acid 16.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, MSC 3C, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001
| | - Hollie K. Jacobs
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, MSC 3C, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001
| | - Aravamudan S. Gopalan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, MSC 3C, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001
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Kell DB. Iron behaving badly: inappropriate iron chelation as a major contributor to the aetiology of vascular and other progressive inflammatory and degenerative diseases. BMC Med Genomics 2009; 2:2. [PMID: 19133145 PMCID: PMC2672098 DOI: 10.1186/1755-8794-2-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 364] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2008] [Accepted: 01/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The production of peroxide and superoxide is an inevitable consequence of aerobic metabolism, and while these particular 'reactive oxygen species' (ROSs) can exhibit a number of biological effects, they are not of themselves excessively reactive and thus they are not especially damaging at physiological concentrations. However, their reactions with poorly liganded iron species can lead to the catalytic production of the very reactive and dangerous hydroxyl radical, which is exceptionally damaging, and a major cause of chronic inflammation. REVIEW We review the considerable and wide-ranging evidence for the involvement of this combination of (su)peroxide and poorly liganded iron in a large number of physiological and indeed pathological processes and inflammatory disorders, especially those involving the progressive degradation of cellular and organismal performance. These diseases share a great many similarities and thus might be considered to have a common cause (i.e. iron-catalysed free radical and especially hydroxyl radical generation).The studies reviewed include those focused on a series of cardiovascular, metabolic and neurological diseases, where iron can be found at the sites of plaques and lesions, as well as studies showing the significance of iron to aging and longevity. The effective chelation of iron by natural or synthetic ligands is thus of major physiological (and potentially therapeutic) importance. As systems properties, we need to recognise that physiological observables have multiple molecular causes, and studying them in isolation leads to inconsistent patterns of apparent causality when it is the simultaneous combination of multiple factors that is responsible.This explains, for instance, the decidedly mixed effects of antioxidants that have been observed, since in some circumstances (especially the presence of poorly liganded iron) molecules that are nominally antioxidants can actually act as pro-oxidants. The reduction of redox stress thus requires suitable levels of both antioxidants and effective iron chelators. Some polyphenolic antioxidants may serve both roles.Understanding the exact speciation and liganding of iron in all its states is thus crucial to separating its various pro- and anti-inflammatory activities. Redox stress, innate immunity and pro- (and some anti-)inflammatory cytokines are linked in particular via signalling pathways involving NF-kappaB and p38, with the oxidative roles of iron here seemingly involved upstream of the IkappaB kinase (IKK) reaction. In a number of cases it is possible to identify mechanisms by which ROSs and poorly liganded iron act synergistically and autocatalytically, leading to 'runaway' reactions that are hard to control unless one tackles multiple sites of action simultaneously. Some molecules such as statins and erythropoietin, not traditionally associated with anti-inflammatory activity, do indeed have 'pleiotropic' anti-inflammatory effects that may be of benefit here. CONCLUSION Overall we argue, by synthesising a widely dispersed literature, that the role of poorly liganded iron has been rather underappreciated in the past, and that in combination with peroxide and superoxide its activity underpins the behaviour of a great many physiological processes that degrade over time. Understanding these requires an integrative, systems-level approach that may lead to novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas B Kell
- School of Chemistry and Manchester Interdisciplinary Biocentre, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess St, Manchester, M1 7DN, UK.
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Iron availability and infection. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2008; 1790:600-5. [PMID: 18675317 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 372] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2008] [Revised: 06/24/2008] [Accepted: 07/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To successfully sustain an infection, nearly all bacteria, fungi and protozoa require a continuous supply of host iron. METHODS Literature review. RESULTS Mechanisms of microbial iron acquisition are determinants for the kinds of cells, tissues and hosts in which pathogens can flourish. As a corollary, hosts possess an array of iron withholding devices whereby they can suppress or abort microbial invasions. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Awareness of environmental and behavioral methods that can prevent iron loading plus development of pharmaceutical agents that can block microbial access to iron may help to reduce our dependence on antibiotics.
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Chae SJ, Chung JY. Effects of Hepcidin Hormone on the Gene Expression of Ferroportin and Divalent Metal Transporter 1 in Caco-2 Cells and J774 Cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3746/jkfn.2008.37.6.721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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