Glycyrrhizic acid-based self-assembled micelles for improving oral bioavailability of paeoniflorin

Multi-omics revealed antibacterial mechanisms of licochalcone A against MRSA and its antimicrobic potential on pork meat

Licorice flavonoids (LFs) exhibit potent antibacterial activities against Gram-positive bacteria. However, the related mechanism remains unclear. This study aims to illustrate the mechanisms of licochalcone A (LA), a main flavonoid in LFs, against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The anti-MRSA effect of LA was comprehensively investigated by a combination of proteomics and metabolomics studies. Meanwhile, LA was loaded in glycyrrhizin (GA) micelles (GA@LA micelles) to improve its water solubility. The results demonstrated that LA could disrupt the arginine metabolism and cause the accumulation of intracellular ROS in MRSA. In addition, LA could inhibit the expression of glucokinase in MRSA, which affect the synthesis of ATP, fatty acids, and peptidoglycan. GA@LA micelles have the latent ability to inhibit the growth of MRSA on fresh pork.

Therapeutic effect of total glucosides of paeony on IgA vasculitis nephritis: progress and prospects

IgA vasculitis nephritis (IgAVN), a type of immune system disease characterized by the deposition of IgA in the mesangial area of the glomerulus, is most common in children. Corticosteroids and immunosuppressants agents are commonly prescribed for the clinical management of IgAVN; however, these therapies are associated with numerous adverse reactions. This necessitates the discovery of alternative, potential therapeutic agents that can offer a safer treatment option. Natural plants contain abundant total glucosides of paeony (TGP), which represent one of the most prevalent secondary metabolites found within these organisms. TGP has been proven to be a safe and desirable natural medicine, with the most central ingredient being polyphenolic. TGP, a naturally occurring and cost-effective compound, exerts its therapeutic influence on IgAVN via diverse pathways and targets, with minimal side effects. Its substantial clinical potential underscores the importance of delving deeper into its pharmacological mechanisms, which hold great promise for novel drug development. This review examines the multifaceted therapeutic mechanisms of TGP in IgAVN encompassing modulation of Wnt/β-catenin pathways and programmed cell death pathways, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and enhancement of vascular repair. Additionally, we provide an overview of recent advancements in enhancing the bioavailability of TGP and highlight crucial considerations that may inform future research endeavors.

Natural Products from Herbal Medicine Self-Assemble into Advanced Bioactive Materials

Novel biomaterials are becoming more crucial in treating human diseases. However, many materials require complex artificial modifications and synthesis, leading to potential difficulties in preparation, side effects, and clinical translation. Recently, significant progress has been achieved in terms of direct self-assembly of natural products from herbal medicine (NPHM), an important source for novel medications, resulting in a wide range of bioactive supramolecular materials including gels, and nanoparticles. The NPHM-based supramolecular bioactive materials are produced from renewable resources, are simple to prepare, and have demonstrated multi-functionality including slow-release, smart-responsive release, and especially possess powerful biological effects to treat various diseases. In this review, NPHM-based supramolecular bioactive materials have been revealed as an emerging, revolutionary, and promising strategy. The development, advantages, and limitations of NPHM, as well as the advantageous position of NPHM-based materials, are first reviewed. Subsequently, a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the self-assembly strategies specific to seven major classes of NPHM is highlighted. Insights into the influence of NPHM structural features on the formation of supramolecular materials are also provided. Finally, the drivers and preparations are summarized, emphasizing the biomedical applications, future scientific challenges, and opportunities, with the hope of igniting inspiration for future research and applications.

In vitro evaluation and in situ intestinal absorption characterisation of paeoniflorin nanoparticles in a rat model

Purpose: the aim of this study was to improve the stability and bioavailability of paeoniflorin (PF) by using nanoparticle encapsulation technology. Methods: paeoniflorin nanoparticles (PF NPs) were prepared with PLGA as the carrier using the compound emulsion method. The nanoparticles were characterised by using a Malvern laser particle sizer, transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyser, and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrometry. The PF NPs were subjected to a series of stability investigations (such as for 4 °C storage stability, pH stability, and thermal stability), lyophilisation protection technology investigations, and in vitro release studies. Finally, the intestinal absorption properties of PF and PF NPs were studied by the in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) rat model, using the effective permeability coefficient (P eff) and the absorption rate constant (K a) as relevant indexes. Results: the prepared nanoparticles had a particle size of 105.0 nm with blue opalescent, rounded morphology, uniform size, good stability and slow release. We found that 4% alginate was the best lyoprotectant for the PF NPs. In the intestinal absorption experiments, P eff was higher for the PF NPs group compared with the original PF material drug group in all intestinal segments (P < 0.05), and the absorption rate constant K a increased with the increase in the drug concentration. Conclusion: the nanoparticles produced by this method have good stability and a slow-release effect; they can thus improve the absorption of PF in rat intestines, helping improve the stability and bioavailability of PF and enhancing its pharmacological effects.

Self-assembled nanoparticles of costunolide and glycyrrhizic acid for enhanced ulcerative colitis treatment

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a persistent inflammatory condition that specifically targets the colon and rectum. Existing therapies fail to adequately address the clinical requirements of people suffering from this ailment. Despite the acknowledged potential of nanomedicines in the field of anti-inflammatory treatment, their widespread use in clinical settings is impeded by their expensive nature and the uncertainty surrounding their safety profiles. This study illustrates that two naturally occurring phytochemicals, Costunolide (COS) and Glycyrrhizic acid (GA), form carrier-free, multifunctional spherical nanoparticles (NPs) through noncovalent interactions, such as π-π stacking and hydrogen bonding. The COS-GA NPs displayed a synergistic anti-inflammatory effect, providing much more evidently improved therapeutic benefits for dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced UC mice due to more effective reduction in inflammation and oxidative stress than did equal dosages of COS or GA used alone. In addition, COS-GA NPs have biocompatibility and biosafety properties unique to them. This study will serve as affirmation of the potential of COS-GA NPs as innovative natural anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities and also such agents as drug discovery in UC, leading possibly to better outcomes in people living with this disabling condition.

Fabrication and in vitro/vivo evaluation of quercetin nanocrystals stabilized by glycyrrhizic acid for liver targeted drug delivery

The purpose of this study was to design novel drug nanocrystals (NCs) stabilized by glycyrrhizic acid (GL) for achieving liver targeted drug delivery due to the presence of GL receptor in the hepatocytes. Quercetin (QT) exhibits good pharmacological activities for the treatment of liver diseases, including liver steatosis, fatty hepatitis, liver fibrosis, and liver cancer. It was selected as a model drug owing to its poor water solubility. QT NCs stabilized by GL (QT-NCs/GL) were fabricated by wet media milling technique and systemically evaluated. QT-NCs stabilized by poloxamer 188 (QT-NCs/P188) were prepared as a reference for comparison of in vitro and in vivo performance with QT-NCs/GL. QT-NCs/GL and QT-NCs/P188 with similar particle size around 130 nm were successfully fabricated by wet media milling technique. Both of QT-NCs/GL and QT-NCs/P188 showed irregular particles and short rods under SEM. XRPD revealed that QT-NCs/GL and QT-NCs/P188 remained in crystalline state with reduced crystallinity. QT-NCs/GL and QT-NCs/P188 exhibited significant solubility increase and drug release improvement of QT as compared to raw QT. No significant difference for the plasma concentration-time curves and pharmacokinetic parameters of QT were found following intravenous administration of QT-NCs/GL and QT-NCs/P188. However, a significantly higher liver distribution of QT following intravenous administration of QT-NCs/GL was observed in comparison to QT-NCs/P188, indicating QT-NCs stabilized by GL could achieve liver targeted delivery of QT. It could be concluded that GL used as stabilizer of QT NCs have a great potential for liver targeted drug delivery.

Regulation of mitophagy and mitochondrial function: Natural compounds as potential therapeutic strategies for Parkinson's disease

Mitochondrial damage is associated with the development of Parkinson's disease (PD), indicating that mitochondrial-targeted treatments could hold promise as disease-modifying approaches for PD. Notably, natural compounds have demonstrated the ability to modulate mitochondrial-related processes. In this review article, we discussed the possible neuroprotective mechanisms of natural compounds against PD in modulating mitophagy and mitochondrial function. A comprehensive literature search on natural compounds related to the treatment of PD by regulating mitophagy and mitochondrial function was conducted from PubMed, Web of Science and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure databases from their inception until April 2023. We summarize recent advancements in mitophagy's molecular mechanisms, including upstream and downstream processes, and its relationship with PD-related genes or proteins. Importantly, we highlight how natural compounds can therapeutically regulate various mitochondrial processes through multiple targets and pathways to alleviate oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, Lewy's body aggregation and apoptosis, which are key contributors to PD pathogenesis. Unlike the single-target strategy of modern medicine, natural compounds provide neuroprotection against PD by modulating various mitochondrial-related processes, including ameliorating mitophagy by targeting the PINK1/parkin pathway, the NIX/BNIP3 pathway, and autophagosome formation (i.e., LC3 and p62). Given the prevalence of mitochondrial damage in various neurodegenerative diseases, exploring the exact mechanism of natural compounds on mitophagy and mitochondrial dysfunction could shed light on the development of highly effective disease-modifying or adjuvant therapies targeting PD and other neurodegenerative disorders.

Self-assembled nanodrug delivery systems for anti-cancer drugs from traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a combination of raw herbs and herbal extracts with a plethora of documented beneficial bioactivities, which has unique advantages in anti-tumor therapy, and many of its major bioactive molecules have been identified in recent years due to advances in chemical separation and structural analysis. However, the major chemical classes of plant-derived bioactive compounds frequently possess chemical properties, including poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability, that limit their therapeutic application. Alternatively, natural small molecules (NSMs) containing these components possess modifiable groups, multiple action sites, hydrophobic side chains, and a rigid skeleton with self-assembly properties that can be exploited to construct self-assembled nanoparticles with therapeutic effects superior to their individual constituents. For instance, the construction of a self-assembled nanodrug delivery system can effectively overcome the strong hydrophobicity and poor in vivo stability of NSMs, thereby greatly improving their bioavailability and enhancing their anti-tumor efficacy. This review summarizes the self-assembly methods, mechanisms, and applications of a variety of NSMs, including terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, and saponins, providing a theoretical basis for the subsequent research on NSMs and the development of SANDDS.

Paeoniflorin loaded liposomes modified with glycyrrhetinic acid for liver-targeting: preparation, characterization, and pharmacokinetic study

OBJECTIVE

To enhance the retention times and therapeutic efficacy of paeoniflorin (PF), a liver-targeted drug delivery system has been developed using glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) as a ligand.

SIGNIFICANCE

The development and optimization of GA-modified PF liposomes (GPLs) have shown promising potential for targeted delivery to the liver, opening up new possibilities for liver disease treatment.

METHODS

This study aimed to identify the best prescriptions using single-factor experiments and response surface methodology. The formulation morphology was determined using transmission electron microscopy. Tissue distribution was observed through in vivo imaging, and pharmacokinetic studies were conducted.

RESULTS

The results indicated that GPLs, prepared using the thin film dispersion method and response surface optimization, exhibited well-dispersed and uniformly sized particles. The in vitro release rate of GPLs was slower compared to PF monomers, suggesting a sustained release effect. The liver-targeting ability of GA resulted in stronger fluorescence signals in the liver for targeted liposomes compared to non-targeted liposomes. Furthermore, pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that GPLs significantly prolonged the residence time of PF in the bloodstream, thereby contributing to prolonged efficacy.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that GPLs are more effective than PF monomers in terms of controlling drug release and delivering drugs to specific targets, highlighting the potential of PF as a liver-protective drug.

Preparation of paeoniflorin-glycyrrhizic acid complex transethosome gel and its preventive and therapeutic effects on melasma

Paeoniflorin (PF) and glycyrrhizic acid (GL) have skin beautifying effects of anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, inhibition of melanin formation, and reduction of skin pigmentation. To improve the transdermal permeability of PF and GL in transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) and enhance their anti-melasma efficacy, PF-GL transethosome (PF-GL-TE) was prepared by ethanol injection method, and finally gelled with carbomer-940 to form PF-GL-TE gel. Consequently, the obtained PF-GL-TE is small and uniform, with an average particle size and a PDI value of about 167.9 nm and 0.102. PF-GL-TE gel showed sustained release behavior and high transdermal permeability in vitro release and transdermal tests. Meanwhile, PF-GL-TE gel played significant preventive effects on melasma induced by progesterone injection and ultraviolet radiation B (UVB) irradiation. According to the results of H&E staining and Masson staining of rat skin, PF-GL-TE gel can alleviate the skin inflammation of and reduce the loss of collagen fibers of back skin in the melasma model rats. Compared with the PF-GL mixture gel, PF-GL-TE gel significantly attenuated the oxidative damage of liver and skin by increasing the activity of SOD and reducing the content of MDA. The results of Western blot showed that PF-GL-TE gel might down-regulate melanin-related proteins expressions of MITF/TYR/TRP1 and TRP2 to prevent and treat melasma. These findings indicate that PF-GL-TE gel is an effective TDDS for delivering PF and GL into the skin, providing a promising preparation for effective prevention and treatment of melasma.

Self-Assembled Polymers for Gastrointestinal Tract Targeted Delivery through the Oral Route: An Update

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) targeted drug delivery systems have gained growing attention as potential carriers for the treatment of different diseases, especially local colonic diseases. They have lower side effects as well as enhanced oral delivery efficiency because of various therapeutics that are vulnerable to acidic and enzymatic degradation in the upper GIT are protected. The novel and unique design of self-assembled nanostructures, such as micelles, hydrogels, and liposomes, which can both respond to external stimuli and be further modified, making them ideal for specific, targeted medical needs and localized drug delivery treatments through the oral route. Therefore, the aim of this review was to summarize and critically discuss the pharmaceutical significance and therapeutic feasibility of a wide range of natural and synthetic biomaterials for efficient drug targeting to GIT using the self-assembly method. Among various types of biomaterials, natural and synthetic polymer-based nanostructures have shown promising targeting potential due to their innate pH responsiveness, sustained and controlled release characteristics, and microbial degradation in the GIT that releases the encapsulated drug moieties.

Strain differences in the drug transport capacity of intestinal glucose transporters in Sprague-Dawley versus Wistar rats, C57BL/6J versus Kunming mice

Designing oral drug delivery systems using intestinal glucose transporters (IGTs) may be one of the strategies for improving oral bioavailability of drugs. However, little is known about the biological factors affecting the drug transport capacity of IGTs. Gastrodin is a sedative drug with a structure very similar to glucose. It is a highly water-soluble phenolic glucoside. It can hardly enter the intestine through simple diffusion but exhibits good oral bioavailability of over 80%. We confirmed that gastrodin is absorbed via the intestinal glucose transport pathway. It has the highest oral bioavailability among the reported glycosides' active ingredients through this pathway. Thus, gastrodin is the most selective drug substrate of IGTs and can be used to evaluate the drug transport capacity of IGTs. Obviously, strain is one of the main biological factors affecting drug absorption. This study firstly compared the drug transport capacity of IGTs between SD rats and Wistar rats and between C57 mice and KM mice by pharmacokinetic experiments and single-pass intestinal perfusion experiments of gastrodin. Then, the sodium-dependent glucose transporter type 1 (SGLT1) and sodium-independent glucose transporters type 2 (GLUT2) in the duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon of these animals were quantified using RT-qPCR and Western blot. The results showed that the oral bioavailability of gastrodin in Wistar rats was significantly higher than in SD rats and significantly higher in KM mice than in C57 mice. Gastrodin absorption significantly differed among different intestinal segments in SD rats, C57 mice and KM mice, except Wistar rats. RT-qPCR and Western blot demonstrated that the intestinal expression distribution of SGLT1 and GLUT2 in SD rats and C57 mice was duodenum ≈ jejunum > ileum > colon. SGLT1 expression did not differ among different intestinal segments in KM mice, whereas the intestinal expression distribution of GLUT2 was duodenum ≈ jejunum ≈ ileum > colon. However, the expression of SGLT1 and GLUT2 did not differ among different intestinal segments in Wistar rats. It was reported that the intestinal expression distribution of SGLT1 and GLUT2 in humans is duodenum > jejunum > ileum > colon. Hence, the intestinal expression distribution of SGLT1 and GLUT2 of SD rats and C57 mice was more similar to that in humans. In conclusion, the drug transport capacity of IGTs differs in different strains of rats and mice. SD rats and C57 mice are more suitable for evaluating the pharmacokinetics of glycosides' active ingredients absorbed via the intestinal glucose transport pathway.

Potential herb‒drug interactions between anti-COVID-19 drugs and traditional Chinese medicine

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread worldwide. Effective treatments against COVID-19 remain urgently in need although vaccination significantly reduces the incidence, hospitalization, and mortality. At present, antiviral drugs including Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir (PaxlovidTM), Remdesivir, and Molnupiravir have been authorized to treat COVID-19 and become more globally available. On the other hand, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been used for the treatment of epidemic diseases for a long history. Currently, various TCM formulae against COVID-19 such as Qingfei Paidu decoction, Xuanfei Baidu granule, Huashi Baidu granule, Jinhua Qinggan granule, Lianhua Qingwen capsule, and Xuebijing injection have been widely used in clinical practice in China, which may cause potential herb-drug interactions (HDIs) in patients under treatment with antiviral drugs and affect the efficacy and safety of medicines. However, information on potential HDIs between the above anti-COVID-19 drugs and TCM formulae is lacking, and thus this work seeks to summarize and highlight potential HDIs between antiviral drugs and TCM formulae against COVID-19, and especially pharmacokinetic HDIs mediated by metabolizing enzymes and/or transporters. These well-characterized HDIs could provide useful information on clinical concomitant medicine use to maximize clinical outcomes and minimize adverse and toxic effects.

Protective effects of paeoniflorin on cardiovascular diseases: A pharmacological and mechanistic overview

Background and ethnopharmacological relevance: The morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are among the highest of all diseases, necessitating the search for effective drugs and the improvement of prognosis for CVD patients. Paeoniflorin (5beta-[(Benzoyloxy)methyl] tetrahydro-5-hydroxy-2-methyl-2,5-methano-1H-3,4-dioxacyclobuta [cd] pentalen-1alpha (2H)-yl-beta-D-glucopyranoside, C₂₃H₂₈O₁₁) is mostly derived from the plants of the family Paeoniaceae (a single genus family) and is known to possess multiple pharmacological properties in the treatment of CVDs, making it a promising agent for the protection of the cardiovascular system. Aim of the study: This review evaluates the pharmacological effects and potential mechanisms of paeoniflorin in the treatment of CVDs, with the aim of advancing its further development and application. Methods: Various relevant literatures were searched in PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar and Web of Science. All eligible studies were analyzed and summarized in this review. Results: Paeoniflorin is a natural drug with great potential for development, which can protect the cardiovascular system by regulating glucose and lipid metabolism, exerting anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative stress, and anti-arteriosclerotic activities, improving cardiac function, and inhibiting cardiac remodeling. However, paeoniflorin was found to have low bioavailability, and its toxicology and safety must be further studied and analyzed, and clinical studies related to it must be carried out. Conclusion: Before paeoniflorin can be used as an effective therapeutic drug for CVDs, further in-depth experimental research, clinical trials, and structural modifications or development of new preparations are required.

Potential of glycyrrhizic and glycyrrhetinic acids against influenza type A and B viruses: A perspective to develop new anti-influenza compounds and drug delivery systems

Despite the recent dynamic development of medicine, influenza is still a significant epidemiological problem for people around the world. The growing resistance of influenza viruses to currently available antiviral drugs makes it necessary to search for new compounds or drug forms with potential high efficacy against human influenza A and B viruses. One of the methods of obtaining new active compounds is to chemically modify privileged structures occurring in the natural environment. The second solution, that is gaining more and more interest, is the use of modern drug carriers, which significantly improve physicochemical and pharmacokinetic parameters of the transported substances. Molecules known from the earliest times for their numerous therapeutic properties are glycyrrhizinic acid (GA) and glycyrrhetinic acid (GE). Both compounds constitute the main active agents of the licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra, Leguminosae) root and, according to a number of scientific reports, show antiviral properties against both DNA and RNA viruses. The above information prompted many scientific teams around the world to obtain and test in vitro and/or in vivo new synthetic GA and GE derivatives against influenza A and B viruses. Similarly, in recent years, a significant amount of GA and GE-based drug delivery systems (DDS) such as nanoparticles, micelles, liposomes, nanocrystals, and carbon dots has been prepared and tested for antiviral activity, including those against influenza A and B viruses. This work systematizes the attempts undertaken to study the antiviral activity of new GA and GE analogs and modern DDS against clinically significant human influenza viruses, at the same time indicating the directions of their further development.

Therapeutic potential of paeoniflorin in atherosclerosis: A cellular action and mechanism-based perspective

Epidemiological studies have shown that the incidence, prevalence and mortality of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) are increasing globally. Atherosclerosis is characterized as a chronic inflammatory disease which involves inflammation and immune dysfunction. P. lactiflora Pall. is a plant origin traditional medicine that has been widely used for the treatment of various diseases for more than a millennium in China, Japan and Korean. Paeoniflorin is a bioactive monomer extracted from P. lactiflora Pall. with anti-atherosclerosis effects. In this article, we comprehensively reviewed the potential therapeutic effects and molecular mechanism whereby paeoniflorin protects against atherosclerosis from the unique angle of inflammation and immune-related pathway dysfunction in vascular endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, monocytes, macrophages, platelets and mast cells. Paeoniflorin, with multiple protective effects in atherosclerosis, has the potential to be used as a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of atherosclerosis and its complications. We conclude with a detailed discussion of the challenges and future perspective of paeoniflorin in translational cardiovascular medicine.

Self-assembled glycyrrhetinic acid derivatives for functional applications: a review

Glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), a famous natural product, has been attracting more attention recently because of its remarkable biological activity, natural sweetness, and good biocompatibility. In the past few years, a considerable amount of literature has grown up around the theme of GA-based chemical modification to broaden its functional applications. Promising structures including gels, micelles, nanoparticles, liposomes, and so forth have been constantly reported. On the one hand, the assembly mechanisms of various materials based on GA derivatives have been elucidated via modern analytical techniques. On the other hand, their potential application prospects in edible additives, intelligent drug delivery, and other fields have been investigated fully due to availability, biocompatibility, and controllable degradability. Inspired by these findings, a systematic summary and classification of the materials formed by GA derivatives seems necessary and meaningful. This review sums up the new functional applications of GA derivatives for the first time and provides better prospects for their application and development.

Investigation of the potential of Glycyrrhiza glabra as a bioavailability enhancer of Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 deficiency is prevalent among individuals globally. Inadequate consumption of B12 rich diet and low bioavailability (due to diet based/physiological factors) are linked to the deficiency of Vitamin B12 inside the body. Bioavailability enhancers augment the bioavailability of an ingested substance (drug/nutrient) thus increasing their concentration inside the body and maximizing their therapeutic benefits. In traditional medicine, Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) finds utility in the treatment of various health conditions. Thus, the present study aimed to examine the potential of ethanolic extract obtained from G. glabra roots to enhance the bioavailability of Vitamin B12. The effect of ethanolic extract of G. glabra (GgEtOH) on intestinal absorption enhancement of B12 was assessed in vitro on Caco-2 and ex-vivo everted gut sac models. The influence of extract on the pharmacokinetics of Vitamin B12 was determined in vivo in Swiss albino mice. GgEtOH significantly enhanced the permeation (Papp) of B12 by 2-5 fold in vitro (25, 50, and 100 μg/ml concentrations) and ex-vivo (250 and 500 μg/ml concentrations). The pharmacokinetic parameters of B12 such as Cmax, AUC, Tmax, etc. were also significantly elevated in vivo upon oral administration of B12 (1 mg/kg dose) in combination with GgEtOH (100 and 1,000 mg/kg dose). These preliminary findings indicate that the ethanolic extract of G. glabra is capable of enhancing the bioavailability of Vitamin B12. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to demonstrate herbal extract-mediated enhancement of Vitamin B12 bioavailability through in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo assays.

The antisolvent coprecipitation method for enhanced bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs

In recent years, poorly water-soluble drug candidates in the drug development pipeline have been a challenging issue for the pharmaceutical industry. Many delivery systems such as nanocrystals, cocrystals, nanoparticles, and amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) have been developed to overcome these problems. A large number of methods are utilized to realize the above delivery systems. Among all the preparation methods, the antisolvent coprecipitation method is a relatively simple, cost-effective method, offering many advantages over conventional methods. An overview of recent developments for each solubility enhancement approach using the antisolvent coprecipitation method is presented. This current review details a comprehensive overview of the antisolvent coprecipitation process and its properties, as well as the fundamentals for enhancing the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs by nanotization, polymorph control with polymers and/or surfactants. Furthermore, this review also presents insights into the factors affecting the antisolvent coprecipitation process.

Supramolecular assemblies based on natural small molecules: Union would be effective

Natural products have been used to prevent and treat human diseases for thousands of years, especially the extensive natural small molecules (NSMs) such as terpenoids, steroids and glycosides. A quantity of studies are confined to concern about their chemical structures and pharmacological activities at the monomolecular level, whereas the spontaneous assemblies of them in liquids yielding supramolecular structures have not been clearly understood deeply. Compared to the macromolecules or synthetic small molecular compounds, NSMs have the inherent advantages of lower toxicity, better biocompatibility, biodegradability and biological activity. Self-assembly of single component and multicomponent co-assembly are unique techniques for designing supramolecular entities. Assemblies are of special significance due to their range of applications in the areas of drug delivery systems, pollutants capture, materials synthesis, etc. The assembled mechanism of supramolecular NSMs which are mainly driven by multiple non-covalent interactions are summarized. Furthermore, a new hypothesis aimed to interpret the integration effects of multi-components of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) inspired on the theory of supramolecular assembly is proposed. Generally, this review can enlighten us to achieve the qualitative leap for understanding natural products from monomolecule to supramolecular structures and multi-component interactions, which is valuable for the intensive research and application.

Study on Supramolecules in Traditional Chinese Medicine Decoction

With the application of the concept of supramolecular chemistry to various fields, a large number of supramolecules have been discovered. The chemical components of traditional Chinese medicine have various sources and unique structures. During the high-temperature boiling process, various active components form supramolecules due to complex interactions. The supramolecular structure in a traditional Chinese medicine decoction can not only be used as a drug carrier to promote the absorption and distribution of medicinal components but may also have biological activities superior to those of single active ingredients or their physical mixtures. By summarizing the relevant research results over recent years, this paper introduces the research progress regarding supramolecules in various decoctions, laying a foundation for further research into supramolecules in traditional Chinese medicine decoctions, and provides a new perspective for revealing the compatibility mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine, guiding clinical medications, and developing new nanometers materials.

Topical delivery of pluronic F127/TPGS mixed micelles-based hydrogel loaded with glycyrrhizic acid for atopic dermatitis treatment

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to develop pluronic F127/D-a-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate mixed micelles-based hydrogel (MMs-gel) for topical delivery of GL to improve its skin permeability and atopic dermatitis (AD) treatment.

SIGNIFICANCE

GL loaded MMs-gel (GL-MMs-gel) could be potentially used as a promising nanocarrier for the treatment of AD.

METHODS

GL-MMs were prepared by thin film hydration method and then loaded into carbopol gel. The formulation of GL-MMs-gel was optimized by full factorial design and systematically characterized for drug content, pH, spreadability, in vitro drug release and percutaneous permeation, etc. The therapeutic effect of GL-MMs-gel was also investigated in AD-like skin lesion model in BALB/c mice and compared with GL solution-based gel (GL-sol-gel).

RESULTS

Spherical GL-MMs with particle size of ∼30 nm were successfully incorporated into carbopol gel to form GL-MMs-gel with drug content of (98.80 ± 1.30) %, pH of 6.0 ± 0.08, and spreadability of (7.1 ± 0.2) cm. In vitro drug release profile of GL-MMs-gel exhibited a sustained-release behavior. The permeation flux for GL-MMs-gel (5.15 ± 0.33 µg/cm²/h) was significantly higher than that of GL-sol-gel (3.08 ± 0.34 µg/cm²/h) and GL-MMs-gel increased the accumulative amounts of GL in rats' skin 8.41 times than GL-sol-gel. The GL-MMs-gel was more effective than GL-sol-gel in suppressions of various AD symptoms including skin lesions, edema, high IgE levels, epidermal hyperplasia, and mast cell infiltration.

CONCLUSION

All results revealed that MMs-gel could be a promising carrier for topical delivery of GL for the treatment of AD.

Drug Candidates for Autoimmune Diseases

Most of the immunosuppressive drugs used in the clinic to prevent organ rejection or to treat autoimmune disorders were originally isolated from fungi or bacteria. Therefore, in addition to plants, these are valuable sources for identification of new potent drugs. Many side effects of established drugs limit their usage and make the identification of new immunosuppressants necessary. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of natural products with potent anti-inflammatory activities that have been tested successfully in different models of chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Some of these candidates already have passed first clinical trials. The anti-inflammatory potency of these natural products was often comparable to those of established drugs, and they could be used at least in addition to standard therapy to reduce their dose to minimize unwanted side effects. A frequent mode of action is the inhibition of classical inflammatory signaling pathways, such as NF-κB, in combination with downregulation of oxidative stress. A drawback for the therapeutic use of those natural products is their moderate bioavailability, which can be optimized by chemical modifications and, in addition, further safety studies are necessary. Altogether, very interesting candidate compounds exist which have the potential to serve as starting points for the development of new immunosuppressive drugs.

Development of herpetrione nanosuspensions stabilized by glycyrrhizin for enhancing bioavailability and synergistic hepatoprotective effect

The objective of this study was to develop novel herpetrione (HPE) nanosuspensions stabilized by glycyrrhizin (HPE NSs/GL) for enhancing bioavailability and hepatoprotective effect of HPE. HPE NSs/GL were prepared by wet media milling method and then systemically evaluated by particle size analysis, scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), dissolution test, pharmacokinetics, and hepatoprotective effect. HPE-NSs stabilized by poloxamer 407 (HPE NSs/P407) were also prepared and used as a reference for comparison. HPE NSs/GL and HPE-NSs/P407 with similar particle sizes around 450 nm and PDI less than 0.2 were successfully prepared and both of them appeared to be spherical under SEM. The XRPD results demonstrated that HPE in both HPE NSs/GL and HPE NSs/P407 was presented in the amorphous state and the addition of GL or P407 and the milling process didn't alter the physical state of HPE. The dissolution and pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that HPE NSs/GL exhibited significant enhancement in drug dissolution (72.44% within 24 h) and AUC_0-t (24.91 ± 3.3 mg/L·h) as compared to HPE coarse suspensions (HPE CS, 34.19% & 13.07 ± 1.02 mg/L·h), but was similar with those of HPE NSs/P407 (80.06% & 26.75 ± 4.06 mg/L•h). Moreover, HPE NSs/GL exhibited significantly better hepatoprotective effect as compared to HPE CS and HPE NSs/P407 as indicated by the lowering of the elevated serum ALT and AST levels and the improvement of the hepatic morphology and architecture, which might be attributed to the improved bioavailability of HPE, and synergistic hepatoprotective effect of GL via alleviating inflammation evidenced by the significant decreased hepatic levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. It could be concluded that GL might be an effective stabilizer for preparing HPE NSs, and HPE NSs/GL is a potential formulation strategy for improving oral bioavailability and hepatoprotective effect of HPE.

Revealing the Toxicity-Enhancing Essence of Glycyrrhiza on Genkwa Flos Based on Ultra-high-performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled With Quadrupole-Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry and Self-Assembled Supramolecular Technology

Researchers often focus on the mechanisms of synergistic agents, a few explore drug combinations that enhance toxicity, while few have studied the internal mechanism of compatibility enhancement in chemical level. Herein, we present a comprehensive analysis based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) and a self-assembled supramolecular strategy, which reveals the toxicity-enhancing essence of glycyrrhizic acid originated in licorice when combined with Genkwa Flos. Through this method, we discovered the toxicity was enhanced through the formation of a supramolecular complex from Genkwa Flos/glycyrrhizic acid. The morphology and size distribution of the self-assembled nanoparticles were characterized by scanning electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering Furthermore, a total of 58 constituents (eight diterpenoids, 35 flavonoids, five phenylpropanoids, four nucleosides, two amino acids, and four other compounds) consisted from the supramolecular complex were identified through accurate-mass measurements in full-scan MS/data-dependent MS/MS mode. Based on the hydrophobic interaction of glycyrrhizic acid with yuanhuacine (one of main ingredients from Genkwa Flos), the supramolecular self-assembly mechanism was revealed with proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) and NOESY 2D NMR. The toxicity of Genkwa Flos and Genkwa Flos/glycyrrhizic acid supramolecular complex were compared through in vitro studies on L-02 cells using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay; and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining was performed to further confirm the enhancement inhibition of Genkwa Flos/glycyrrhizic acid supramolecular complex than Genkwa Flos. This study provides fundamental scientific evidence of the formation of a self-assembled phytochemical supramolecular when Genkwa Flos and glycyrrhizic acid are combined, enabling to understand their clinical incompatibility and contraindication.

Enhanced therapeutic efficacy of a novel self-micellizing nanoformulation-loading fisetin against acetaminophen-induced liver injury

Aim: To evaluate the feasibility of using dipotassium glycyrrhizinate (DG) as a nanocarrier-loading fisetin (FIT) with strengthened treatment efficacies against liver injury induced by acetaminophen overdose. Methods: DG-FIT was prepared, and its efficacy against liver injury induced by acetaminophen overdose was evaluated. Results: DG-FIT was successfully fabricated with excellent physicochemical properties. DG-FIT could be easily dissolved in water to form a clear micelle solution with high FIT encapsulation efficiency. FIT in DG-FIT exhibited a dramatically improved aqueous solubility. DG-FIT improved intestinal permeation. Regarding in vivo efficacies, DG-FIT exhibited significant effect against acetaminophen overdose by suppressing oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines involved. Conclusion: DG-FIT formulation possibly represents a promising method for strengthening the efficacy of FIT against acetaminophen-induced liver injury.

Piperine-Loaded Glycyrrhizic Acid- and PLGA-Based Nanoparticles Modified with Transferrin for Antitumor : Piperine-Loaded Glycyrrhizic Acid- and PLGA-Based Nanoparticles

The purpose of this study was to enhance the antitumor effect of piperine by constructing the nanoparticles modified with transferrin (Tf-PIP-NPs) and evaluating their efficacy in vitro and in vivo. The Tf-PIP-NPs were prepared by the solvent evaporation method, and their properties were characterized. The effects of Tf-PIP-NPs on cytotoxicity, cell uptake, apoptosis, and mitochondrial membrane potential were evaluated in HepG2 cells, MDA-MB-231 cells, and 4T1 cells. In a 4T1 tumor-bearing mouse model, the antitumor efficacy of Tf-PIP-NPs was assessed in terms of tumor volumes, changes in body weight, HE staining, and immunohistochemical analysis. With a mean particle size of 112.2 ± 1.27 nm, the zeta potential of (- 28.0 ± 1.6 mV) Tf-PIP-NPs were rapidly internalized by tumor cells after 1 h through the transferrin receptor (TfR)-mediated endocytosis pathway, significantly inducing cellular apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential loss. Although Tf-PIP-NPs had no significant difference with PIP-NPs in tumor volume inhibition due to the presence of tumor microenvironment, it could significantly upregulate the expression of related pro-apoptotic proteins and induce tumor necrosis. We used the self-assembly properties of glycyrrhizic acid (GL) and polymer-PLGA to encapsulate piperine and modified with the transferrin, which provided a promising approach to improve the antitumor efficacy for anticarcinogen.