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Lama J, Buhidma Y, Fletcher E, Duty S. Animal models of Parkinson's disease: a guide to selecting the optimal model for your research. Neuronal Signal 2021; 5:NS20210026. [PMID: 34956652 PMCID: PMC8661507 DOI: 10.1042/ns20210026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex, multisystem disorder characterised by α-synuclein (SNCA) pathology, degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, multifactorial pathogenetic mechanisms and expression of a plethora of motor and non-motor symptoms. Animal models of PD have already been instructive in helping us unravel some of these aspects. However, much remains to be discovered, requiring continued interrogation by the research community. In contrast with the situation for many neurological disorders, PD benefits from of a wide range of available animal models (pharmacological, toxin, genetic and α-synuclein) but this makes selection of the optimal one for a given study difficult. This is especially so when a study demands a model that displays a specific combination of features. While many excellent reviews of animal models already exist, this review takes a different approach with the intention of more readily informing this decision-making process. We have considered each feature of PD in turn - aetiology, pathology, pathogenesis, motor dysfunctions and non-motor symptoms (NMS) - highlighting those animal models that replicate each. By compiling easily accessible tables and a summary figure, we aim to provide the reader with a simple, go-to resource for selecting the optimal animal model of PD to suit their research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Lama
- King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, Wolfson Wing, Hodgkin Building, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K
| | - Yazead Buhidma
- King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, Wolfson Wing, Hodgkin Building, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K
| | - Edward J.R. Fletcher
- King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, Wolfson Wing, Hodgkin Building, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K
| | - Susan Duty
- King’s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Wolfson Centre for Age Related Diseases, Wolfson Wing, Hodgkin Building, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, U.K
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Prediger RD, Schamne MG, Sampaio TB, Moreira ELG, Rial D. Animal models of olfactory dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2019; 164:431-452. [PMID: 31604561 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63855-7.00024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory dysfunction seems to occur earlier than classic motor and cognitive symptoms in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Thus, the use of the olfactory system as a clinical marker for neurodegenerative diseases is helpful in the characterization of prodromal stages of these diseases, early diagnostic strategies, differential diagnosis, and, potentially, prediction of treatment success. The use of genetic and neurotoxin animal models has contributed to the understanding of the mechanisms underlying olfactory dysfunction in a number of neurodegenerative diseases. In this chapter, we provide an overview of behavioral and neurochemical alterations observed in animal models of different neurodegenerative diseases (such as genetic and Aβ infusion models for AD and neurotoxins and genetic models of PD), in which olfactory dysfunction has been described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui D Prediger
- Department of Pharmacology, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil.
| | - Marissa G Schamne
- Department of Pharmacology, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Tuane B Sampaio
- Department of Pharmacology, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Eduardo L G Moreira
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center of Biological Sciences¸ Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Daniel Rial
- Department of Pharmacology, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
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Phillips KA, Ross CN, Spross J, Cheng CJ, Izquierdo A, Biju KC, Chen C, Li S, Tardif SD. Behavioral phenotypes associated with MPTP induction of partial lesions in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Behav Brain Res 2017; 325:51-62. [PMID: 28219749 PMCID: PMC5410665 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder with the core motor features of resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. Non-motor symptoms also occur, and include cognitive dysfunction, mood disorders, anosmia (loss of smell), and REM sleep disturbances. As the development of medications and other therapies for treatment of non-motor symptoms is ongoing, it is essential to have animal models that aid in understanding the neural changes underlying non-motor PD symptoms and serve as a testing ground for potential therapeutics. We investigated several non-motor symptoms in 10 adult male marmosets using the MPTP model, with both the full (n=5) and partial (n=5) MPTP dosing regimens. Baseline data in numerous domains were collected prior to dosing; assessments in these same domains occurred post-dosing for 12 weeks. Marmosets given the partial MPTP dose (designed to mimic the early stages of the disease) differed significantly from marmosets given the full MPTP dose in several ways, including behavior, olfactory discrimination, cognitive performance, and social responses. Importantly, while spontaneous recovery of PD motor symptoms has been previously reported in studies of MPTP monkeys and cats, we did not observe recovery of any non-motor symptoms. This suggests that the neurochemical mechanisms behind the non-motor symptoms of PD, which appear years before the onset of symptoms, are independent of the striatal dopaminergic transmission. We demonstrate the value of assessing a broad range of behavioral change to detect non-motor impairment, anosmia, and differences in socially appropriate responses, in the marmoset MPTP model of early PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley A Phillips
- Department of Psychology, Trinity University, San Antonio TX, United States; Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States.
| | - Corinna N Ross
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States; Department of Science and Mathematics, Texas A&M University San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States; Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Jennifer Spross
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Catherine J Cheng
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States; Department of Cell Systems and Anatomy, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Alyssa Izquierdo
- Department of Psychology, Trinity University, San Antonio TX, United States
| | - K C Biju
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Cang Chen
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States; South Texas Veterans Health Care System, Audie L. Murphy Division, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Senlin Li
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States; South Texas Veterans Health Care System, Audie L. Murphy Division, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Suzette D Tardif
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States; Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
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The Brief Odor Detection Test (B-ODT) for Very Early Diagnosis of Cognitive Decline: A Preliminary Study. BRAIN IMPAIR 2017. [DOI: 10.1017/brimp.2017.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory impairment in older adults is associated with cognitive decline. This study describes the development of a Brief Odor Detection Test (B-ODT), and its pilot administration in community-dwelling older adults. The study aimed at examining whether the test could differentiate older adults with very mild cognitive impairment from their cognitively healthy counterparts. The sample consisted of 34 older adults (22 women), aged from 65 to 87 years. Participants were divided into two groups according to their general cognitive functioning. Odor detection was measured via vanillin solutions at the following concentrations: 150 mg/L, 30 mg/L, 15 mg/L, 3 mg/L, and .03 mg/L. The first condition of the test involved a scale administration of vanillin solutions. The second condition examined the change in air odour and it required vanillin solution of 30 mg/L and a metric ruler of 30 cm. The examiner had to place the solution at a specific distance point from each nostril. Odour identification sensitivity was secondarily measured. The results showed statistically significant differences in odour detection threshold between the two groups. In the unirhinal testing, left nostril differences of the two groups were definite. Hence, the B-ODT seems a promising instrument for very early cognitive impairment screening in older adult population.
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Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease which often presents hyposmia (80-90% of the cases). We characterized the olfactory behavior in the model of 6-hydroxydopamine of Parkinson's disease. Mice were trained to discriminate between two odorants in a radial maze. One of the odorants was associated with water as a reward. 6-hydroxydopamine was injected directly into the dorsal striatum; after complete striatal denervation, olfactory performance was evaluated in a radial maze. In the first evaluation, experimental mice performed as control mice. After the first evaluation, the narine of the contralateral side to the striatal injection was closed and mice were evaluated again. The experimental group completely lost the capacity to discriminate between the odorant associated with the reward (heptaldehyde) and the unconditioned odorant (2-heptanone). We propose that the olfactory deficit was caused by dopaminergic denervation to the olfactory tubercle and nucleus accumbens.
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Doty RL. Olfaction in Parkinson's disease and related disorders. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 46:527-52. [PMID: 22192366 PMCID: PMC3429117 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Revised: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Olfactory dysfunction is an early 'pre-clinical' sign of Parkinson's disease (PD). The present review is a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of such dysfunction in PD and related disorders. The olfactory bulb is implicated in the dysfunction, since only those syndromes with olfactory bulb pathology exhibit significant smell loss. The role of dopamine in the production of olfactory system pathology is enigmatic, as overexpression of dopaminergic cells within the bulb's glomerular layer is a common feature of PD and most animal models of PD. Damage to cholinergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic systems is likely involved, since such damage is most marked in those diseases with the most smell loss. When compromised, these systems, which regulate microglial activity, can influence the induction of localized brain inflammation, oxidative damage, and cytosolic disruption of cellular processes. In monogenetic forms of PD, olfactory dysfunction is rarely observed in asymptomatic gene carriers, but is present in many of those that exhibit the motor phenotype. This suggests that such gene-related influences on olfaction, when present, take time to develop and depend upon additional factors, such as those from aging, other genes, formation of α-synuclein- and tau-related pathology, or lowered thresholds to oxidative stress from toxic insults. The limited data available suggest that the physiological determinants of the early changes in PD-related olfactory function are likely multifactorial and may include the same determinants as those responsible for a number of other non-motor symptoms of PD, such as dysautonomia and sleep disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Doty
- Smell & Taste Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Neuroprotective changes of striatal degeneration-related gene expression by acupuncture in an MPTP mouse model of Parkinsonism: microarray analysis. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2010; 31:377-91. [PMID: 21107677 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-010-9629-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Acupuncture at acupoints GB34 and LR3 has been reported to inhibit nigrostriatal degeneration in Parkinsonism models, yet the genes related to this preventive effect of acupuncture on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system remain elusive. This study investigated gene expression profile changes in the striatal region of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced Parkinsonism models after acupuncture at the acupoints GB34 and LR3 using a whole transcript genechip microarray (Affymetrix genechip mouse gene 1.0 ST array). It was confirmed that acupuncture at these acupoints could inhibit the decrease of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter in the nigrostriatal region of the MPTP model while acupuncture at the non-acupoints could not counteract this decrease. Genechip gene array analysis (fold change cutoff 1.3 and P < 0.05) showed that 12 of the 69 probes up-regulated in MPTP when compared to the control were down-regulated by acupuncture at the acupoints. Of these 12 probes, 11 probes (nine annotated genes) were exclusively down-regulated by acupuncture only at the acupoints; the Gfral gene was excluded because it was commonly down-regulated by acupuncture at both the acupoints and the non-acupoints. In addition, 28 of the 189 probes down-regulated in MPTP when compared to the control were up-regulated by acupuncture at the acupoints. Of these 28 probes, 19 probes (seven annotated genes) were exclusively up-regulated by acupuncture only at the acupoints while nine probes were commonly up-regulated by acupuncture at both the acupoints and the non-acupoints. The regulation patterns of representative genes in real-time RT-PCR correlated with those of the genes in the microarray. These results suggest that the 30 probes (16 annotated genes), which are affected by MPTP and acupuncture only at the acupoints, are responsible for exerting in the striatal regions the inhibitory effect of acupuncture at the acupoints on MPTP-induced striatal degeneration.
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Fox SH, Brotchie JM. The MPTP-lesioned non-human primate models of Parkinson’s disease. Past, present, and future. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2010; 184:133-57. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(10)84007-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Northcutt KV, Lonstein JS. Social contact elicits immediate-early gene expression in dopaminergic cells of the male prairie vole extended olfactory amygdala. Neuroscience 2009; 163:9-22. [PMID: 19524021 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2009] [Revised: 05/21/2009] [Accepted: 06/07/2009] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Male prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) are a valuable model in which to study the neurobiology of sociality because, unlike most mammals, they pair bond after mating and display paternal behaviors. Research on the regulation of these social behaviors has highlighted dopamine (DA) neurotransmission in both pair bonding and parenting. We recently described large numbers of dopaminergic cells in the male prairie vole principal nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (pBST) and posterodorsal medial amygdala (MeApd), but such cells were very few in number or absent in the non-monogamous species we examined, including meadow voles. This suggests that DA cells in these sites may be important for sociosexual behaviors in male prairie voles. To gain some insight into the function of these DAergic neurons in male prairie voles, we examined expression of the immediate-early genes (IEGs) Fos and Egr-1 in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive (TH-ir) cells of the pBST and MeApd after males interacted or not with one of several social stimuli. We found that IEGs were constitutively expressed in some TH-ir neurons under any social condition, but that IEG expression in these cells decreased after a 3.5-h social isolation. Thirty-minute mating bouts (but not 6- or 24-h bouts) that included ejaculation elicited greater IEG expression in TH-ir cells than did non-ejaculatory mating, interactions with a familiar female sibling, or interactions with pups. Furthermore, Fos expression in TH-ir cells was positively correlated with the display of copulatory, but not parental, behaviors. These effects of mating were not found in other DA-rich sites of the forebrain (including the anteroventral periventricular preoptic area, periventricular anterior hypothalamus, zona incerta, and arcuate nucleus). Thus, activity in DAergic cells of the male prairie vole pBST and MeApd is influenced by their social environment, and may be particularly involved in mating and its consequences, including pair bonding.
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Northcutt
- Neuroscience Program, 108 Giltner Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Age-related loss of olfactory sensitivity: Association to dopamine transporter binding in putamen. Neuroscience 2009; 161:422-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.03.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2009] [Revised: 03/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Guo X, Gao G, Wang X, Li L, Li W, Liang Q, Zhang H. Effects of bilateral deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus on olfactory function in Parkinson's disease patients. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2008; 86:237-44. [PMID: 18477840 DOI: 10.1159/000131662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The goal of the present study was to evaluate the effects of bilateral deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) on olfaction in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS 15 patients suffering from sporadic PD-related dysosmia were implanted with bilateral electrodes aimed at the STN. One week before the surgery, odor detection threshold (DT) and identification threshold (IT) were evaluated in all patients using the 'five odor olfactory detection arrays' in both medication-off and medication-on conditions. 15 healthy age-matched controls also received the same olfactory evaluation. Patient evaluations were repeated at 6 and 12 months postoperatively in a medication-off/stimulator-on or medication-off/stimulator-off condition. Odor DT and IT scores were compared pre- and postoperatively, as well as between the medication-off/stimulator-on or -off conditions. RESULTS The motor symptoms of all 15 PD patients, including rigidity, tremor, bradykinesia, postural instability, and gait were significantly improved after stimulator implantation. The UPDRS motor (UPDRS III) scores decreased significantly in the medication-off/stimulator-on condition (p < 0.01). The odor DT and IT scores of PD patients were higher than those of healthy controls (p < 0.01). In the medication-off/stimulator-off condition, there was no significant difference in the odor DT and IT scores in PD patients pre- vs. postoperatively (p > 0.05). Notably, there were no significant alterations to DT scores in the stimulator-on and -off conditions at the 6- and 12-month follow-up (p > 0.05), whereas IT scores were significantly improved in the stimulation-on relative to the stimulation-off condition at the 6- and 12-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS STN DBS can significantly improve olfactory cognitive function in PD patients. The possible mechanisms include an improvement in striatal metabolism and neuronal activity in the orbitofrontal cortex mediated by STN DBS, as well as increased glucose metabolism in the striatum, midbrain, cingulate gyrus, and motor and higher-order somatosensory association cortices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Institute for Functional Neurosurgery of PLA, Xi'an, China.
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Belzunegui S, San Sebastián W, Garrido-Gil P, Izal-Azcárate A, Vázquez-Claverie M, López B, Marcilla I, Lanciego JL, Luquin MR. The number of dopaminergic cells is increased in the olfactory bulb of monkeys chronically exposed to MPTP. Synapse 2008; 61:1006-12. [PMID: 17853434 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the impact of the nigrostriatal lesion on the olfactory tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-ir) cells in monkeys. The majority of these TH-ir cells appeared in the glomerular layer of the olfactory bulb and many were immature but functional dopaminergic neurons. In parkinsonian monkeys the number of olfactory dopaminergic neurons increased up to 100% as compared to controls, but their phenotype did not change. This increased TH-ir cell population might be a direct consequence of the nigral cell loss and contribute to the hyposmia reported by Parkinson's disease patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Belzunegui
- Laboratory of Regenerative Therapy, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Applied Medicine Research, University of Navarra, Avenida Pío XII 55, 31008. Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
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Mitsumoto Y, Mori A, Ohashi S, Nakai M, Moriizumi T. Differential effects of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine in the olfactory bulb and the striatum in mice. Neurosci Res 2005; 51:111-5. [PMID: 15596247 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2004.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2004] [Accepted: 10/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to examine whether 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) causes damage of dopaminergic glomerular cells of the olfactory bulb (OB) in C57BL/6 mice. At 3 days after MPTP treatment, dopamine level in the striatum and the OB decreased to 13% and 84% of the control mice, respectively. While a small reduction of tyrosine hydroxylase protein level was observed in the OB of MPTP-treated mice, dopamine transporter (DAT) was undetectable at the protein level in this region. These results indicate that the DAT protein level could account for resistance of the OB to the Parkinsonism-inducing toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhide Mitsumoto
- Second Institute of New Drug Discovery, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokushima-city, Tokushima 771-0192, Japan.
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