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Jasińska A, Walaszczyk A, Paraszkiewicz K. Omics-Based Approaches in Research on Textile Dye Microbial Decolorization. Molecules 2024; 29:2771. [PMID: 38930836 PMCID: PMC11206425 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29122771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The development of the textile industry has negative effects on the natural environment. Cotton cultivation, dyeing fabrics, washing, and finishing require a lot of water and energy and use many chemicals. One of the most dangerous pollutants generated by the textile industry is dyes. Most of them are characterized by a complex chemical structure and an unfavorable impact on the environment. Especially azo dyes, whose decomposition by bacteria may lead to the formation of carcinogenic aromatic amines and raise a lot of concern. Using the metabolic potential of microorganisms that biodegrade dyes seems to be a promising solution for their elimination from contaminated environments. The development of omics sciences such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics has allowed for a comprehensive approach to the processes occurring in cells. Especially multi-omics, which combines data from different biomolecular levels, providing an integrative understanding of the whole biodegradation process. Thanks to this, it is possible to elucidate the molecular basis of the mechanisms of dye biodegradation and to develop effective methods of bioremediation of dye-contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Jasińska
- Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Aleksandra Walaszczyk
- Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Lodz, 90-237 Lodz, Poland;
| | - Katarzyna Paraszkiewicz
- Department of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Lodz, Poland;
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Zhang S, Feng L, Han Y, Xu Z, Xu L, An X, Zhang Q. Revealing the degrading-possibility of methyl red by two azoreductases of Anoxybacillus sp. PDR2 based on molecular docking. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 351:141173. [PMID: 38232904 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Azo dyes, as the most widely used synthetic dyes, are considered to be one of the culprits of water resources and environmental pollution. Anoxybacillus sp. PDR2 is a thermophilic bacterium with the ability to degrade azo dyes, whose genome contains two genes encoding azoreductases (named AzoPDR2-1 and AzoPDR2-2). In this study, through response surface methodology (RSM), when the initial pH, inoculation volume and Mg2+ addition amount were 7.18, 10.72% and 0.1 g/L respectively, the decolorization rate of methyl red (MR) (200 mg/L) could reach its maximum (98.8%). The metabolites after biodegradation were detected by UV-Vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), indicating that MR was successfully decomposed into 4-aminobenzoic acid and other small substrates. In homologous modeling, it was found that both azoreductases were flavin-dependent azoreductases, and belonged to the α/β structure, using the Rossmann fold. In their docking results with the cofactor flavin mononucleotide (FMN), FMN bound to the surface of the protein dimer. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) was superimposed on the plane of the pyrazine ring between FMN and the activity pocket of protein. Besides, both azoreductase complexes (azoreductase-FMN-NADH) exhibited a substrate preference for MR. Asn104 and Tyr74 played an important role in the combination of the azoreductase AzoPDR2-1 complex and the azoreductase AzoPDR2-2 complex with MR, respectively. This provided assistance for studying the mechanism of azoreductase biodegradation of azo dyes in thermophilic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulin Zhang
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China
| | - Linlin Feng
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China
| | - Yanyan Han
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China
| | - Zihang Xu
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China
| | - Luhui Xu
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China
| | - Xuejiao An
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China
| | - Qinghua Zhang
- College of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory for the Development and Utilization of Agricultural Microbial Resources, Nanchang, 330045, PR China.
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Wu J, Lv J, Zhao L, Zhao R, Gao T, Xu Q, Liu D, Yu Q, Ma F. Exploring the role of microbial proteins in controlling environmental pollutants based on molecular simulation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:167028. [PMID: 37704131 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Molecular simulation has been widely used to study microbial proteins' structural composition and dynamic properties, such as volatility, flexibility, and stability at the microscopic scale. Herein, this review describes the key elements of molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in molecular simulation; reviews the techniques combined with molecular simulation, such as crystallography, spectroscopy, molecular biology, and machine learning, to validate simulation results and bridge information gaps in the structure, microenvironmental changes, expression mechanisms, and intensity quantification; illustrates the application of molecular simulation, in characterizing the molecular mechanisms of interaction of microbial proteins with four different types of contaminants, namely heavy metals (HMs), pesticides, dyes and emerging contaminants (ECs). Finally, the review outlines the important role of molecular simulations in the study of microbial proteins for controlling environmental contamination and provides ideas for the application of molecular simulation in screening microbial proteins and incorporating targeted mutagenesis to obtain more effective contaminant control proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieting Wu
- School of Environmental Science, Liaoning University, Shenyang 110036, China
| | - Jin Lv
- School of Environmental Science, Liaoning University, Shenyang 110036, China
| | - Lei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources & Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Ruofan Zhao
- School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Tian Gao
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development of Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Xikang Road #1, Nanjing 210098, China
| | - Qi Xu
- PetroChina Fushun Petrochemical Company, Fushun 113000, China
| | - Dongbo Liu
- School of Environmental Science, Liaoning University, Shenyang 110036, China
| | - Qiqi Yu
- School of Environmental Science, Liaoning University, Shenyang 110036, China
| | - Fang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources & Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
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Mousavi SZ, Shadman HR, Habibi M, Didandeh M, Nikzad A, Golmohammadi M, Maleki R, Suwaileh WA, Khataee A, Zargar M, Razmjou A. Elucidating the Sorption Mechanisms of Environmental Pollutants Using Molecular Simulation. Ind Eng Chem Res 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c02333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Seyedeh Zahra Mousavi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, 1411944961, Iran
| | - Hamid Reza Shadman
- Department of Polymer Engineering & Color Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, 6351713178, Iran
| | - Meysam Habibi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, 6718773654, Iran
| | - Mohsen Didandeh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, 1411944961, Iran
| | - Arash Nikzad
- Mechanical Engineering Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Mahsa Golmohammadi
- Department of Polymer Engineering & Color Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, 6351713178, Iran
| | - Reza Maleki
- Department of Chemical Technologies, Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), P.O. Box 33535111, Tehran, 3313193685, Iran
| | - Wafa Ali Suwaileh
- Chemical Engineering Program, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Education City, Doha 23874, Qatar
| | - Alireza Khataee
- Research Laboratory of Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, 51666-16471 Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia, Mersin 10 Turkey
| | - Masoumeh Zargar
- Mineral Recovery Research Center (MRRC), School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth WA 6027, Australia
| | - Amir Razmjou
- Mineral Recovery Research Center (MRRC), School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth WA 6027, Australia
- UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology, School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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Alam R, Mahmood RA, Islam S, Ardiati FC, Solihat NN, Alam MB, Lee SH, Yanto DHY, Kim S. Understanding the biodegradation pathways of azo dyes by immobilized white-rot fungus, Trametes hirsuta D7, using UPLC-PDA-FTICR MS supported by in silico simulations and toxicity assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 313:137505. [PMID: 36509189 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
No biodegradation methods are absolute in the treatment of all textile dyes, which leads to structure-dependent degradation. In this study, biodegradation of three azo dyes, reactive black 5 (RB5), acid blue 113 (AB113), and acid orange 7 (AO7), was investigated using an immobilized fungus, Trametes hirsuta D7. The degraded metabolites were identified using UPLC-PDA-FTICR MS and the biodegradation pathway followed was proposed. RB5 (92%) and AB113 (97%) were effectively degraded, whereas only 30% of AO7 was degraded. Molecular docking simulations were performed to determine the reason behind the poor degradation of AO7. Weak binding affinity, deficiency in H-bonding interactions, and the absence of interactions between the azo (-NN-) group and active residues of the model laccase enzyme were responsible for the low degradation efficiency of AO7. Furthermore, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity assays confirmed that the fungus-treated dye produced non-toxic metabolites. The observations of this study will be useful for understanding and further improving enzymatic dye biodegradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafiqul Alam
- Department of Chemistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Raisul Awal Mahmood
- Department of Chemistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Syful Islam
- Department of Chemistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Fenny Clara Ardiati
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, 16911, Indonesia
| | - Nissa Nurfajrin Solihat
- Research Center for Biomass and Bioproducts, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, 16911, Indonesia
| | - Md Badrul Alam
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Han Lee
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Graduate School, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea
| | - Dede Heri Yuli Yanto
- Research Center for Applied Microbiology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, 16911, Indonesia; Research Collaboration Center for Marine Biomaterials, Jatinangor, 45360, Indonesia.
| | - Sunghwan Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea; Mass Spectrometry Converging Research Center and Green-Nano Materials Research Center, Daegu, 41566, Republic of Korea.
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Biological Degradation of the Azo Dye Basic Orange 2 by Escherichia coli: A Sustainable and Ecofriendly Approach for the Treatment of Textile Wastewater. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14132063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In this study, initially 11 different bacterial strains were tested for the degradation capabilities against Basic Orange 2 dye. In initial screening with 78.90% degradation activity, Escherichia coli emerged as the most promising strain to degrade the selected dye, and was then employed in subsequent experiments. For further enhancing the degradation capability of selected bacteria, the effects of various physicochemical parameters were also evaluated. Among the tested parameters, 20 ppm dye concentration, 1666 mg/L glucose concentration, a temperature of 40 °C, 666 mg/L sodium chloride concentration, pH 7, 1000 mg/L urea concentration, a 3-day incubation period and the use of sodium benzoate as a redox mediator (666 mg/L) were found to be ideal conditions to get the highest decolorization/degradation activities. Finally, all the mentioned parameters were combined in a single set of experiments, and the decolorization capacity of the bacteria was enhanced to 89.88%. The effect of pH, dye concentration, incubation time and temperature were found to be responsible for the optimum degradation of dye (p < 0.05), as predicted from the ANOVA (analysis of variance) of the response surface methodology. The metabolites were collected after completion of the process and characterized through Fourier transform irradiation (FTIR) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). From the data obtained, a proposed mechanism was deduced where it was assumed that the azo bond of the dye was broken by the azoreductase enzyme of the bacteria, resulting in the formation of aniline and 3, 4-diaminobezeminium chloride. The aniline was then further converted to benzene by deamination by the action of the bacterial deaminase enzyme. The benzene ring, after subsequent methylation, was transformed into o-xylene, while 3, 4-diaminobezeminium chloride was converted to p-xylene by enzymatic action. These findings suggest that Escherichia coli is a capable strain to be used in the bioremediation of textile effluents containing azo dyes. However, the selected bacterial strain may need to be further investigated for other dyes as well.
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Abstract
The use of dyes dates to ancient times and has increased due to population and industrial growth, leading to the rise of synthetic dyes. These pollutants are of great environmental impact and azo dyes deserve special attention due their widespread use and challenging degradation. Among the biological solutions developed to mitigate this issue, bacteria are highlighted for being versatile organisms, which can be applied as single organism cultures, microbial consortia, in bioreactors, acting in the detoxification of azo dyes breakage by-products and have the potential to combine biodegradation with the production of products of economic interest. These characteristics go hand in hand with the ability of various strains to act under various chemical and physical parameters, such as a wide range of pH, salinity, and temperature, with good performance under industry, and environmental, relevant conditions. This review encompasses studies with promising results related to the use of bacteria in the bioremediation of environments contaminated with azo dyes in the most diverse techniques and parameters, both in environmental and laboratory samples, also addressing their mechanisms and the legislation involving these dyes around the world, showcasing the importance of bacterial bioremediation, specialty in a scenario in an ever-increasing pursuit for sustainable production.
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Goud BS, Cha HL, Koyyada G, Kim JH. Augmented Biodegradation of Textile Azo Dye Effluents by Plant Endophytes: A Sustainable, Eco-Friendly Alternative. Curr Microbiol 2020; 77:3240-3255. [PMID: 32951066 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-020-02202-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Textile industry consumes a large proportion of available water and releases huge amounts of toxic azo dye effluents, leading to an inevitable situation of acute environmental pollution that has been a significant threat to mankind. Decolorization or detoxification of harmful azo dyes has become a global priority to overcome the disastrous consequences and salvage the ecosystem. Biodegradation of textile azo dyes by endophytes stands to be a lucrative and viable alternative over conventional physico-chemical methods, owing to their eco-friendliness, cost-competitive and non-toxic nature. Especially, plant endophytic microbes exhibit promising biodegradation potential which has wired up the effective removal of textile azo dyes, attributing to their ability to produce dye degrading enzymes, laccases, peroxidases and azoreductases. Although both bacterial and fungal endophytes have been tried for azo dye degradation, endophytic fungi find broader application over bacteria. Despite of the advancements made in microbe-mediated biodegradation, there is still a need to fill the gap in lab to in situ translation of biodegradation research. This review concisely accentuates the xenobiotics of textile azo dyes and microbial mechanisms of biodegradation of textile azo dyes, positing plant endophytic community, especially bacterial and fungal endophytes as the potential dye degraders, highlighting currently reported dye degrading endophytic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burragoni Sravanthi Goud
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, 214-1, Dae-hakro 280, Gyeongsan, 712-749, Gyeongbuk, Korea.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 214-1, Dae-hakro 280, Gyeongsan, 712-749, Gyeongbuk, Korea.
| | - Ha Lim Cha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 214-1, Dae-hakro 280, Gyeongsan, 712-749, Gyeongbuk, Korea
| | - Ganesh Koyyada
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 214-1, Dae-hakro 280, Gyeongsan, 712-749, Gyeongbuk, Korea.
| | - Jae Hong Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 214-1, Dae-hakro 280, Gyeongsan, 712-749, Gyeongbuk, Korea.
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Srinivasan S, Sadasivam SK, Gunalan S, Shanmugam G, Kothandan G. Application of docking and active site analysis for enzyme linked biodegradation of textile dyes. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 248:599-608. [PMID: 30836241 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.02.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Growth of textile industries led to production of enormous dye varieties. These textile dyes are largely used, chemically stable and easy to synthesize. But they are recalcitrant and persist as less biodegradable pollutants when discharged into waterbodies. Potential use of enzyme-linked bioremediation of textile dyes will control their toxicity in waterbodies. Bioinformatics and Molecular docking tool provides an insight into remediation mechanism by predicting susceptibility of dye degradation using oxidoreductive enzymes. In this study, six dyes, Reactive Red F3B, Remazol Red RGB, Joyfix Red RB, Joyfix Yellow MR, Remazol Blue RGB and Turquoise CL-5B of azo, anthraquinone and phthalocyanine molecular class were identified as potential targets for degradation by laccase and azoreductase of Aeromonas hydrophila in addition to Lysinibacillus sphaericus through in silico docking tool BioSolveIT-FlexX. Azoreductase breaks azo bonds by ping-pong mechanism whereas laccase decolorizes dyes by free radical mechanism which is not specific in nature. Results were analyzed based on parameters like stability, catalytic action and selectivity for enzyme-dye interactions. Amino acids of enzymes interacted with several dyes substantiating variations in active site for enzyme-ligand binding affinity. This suggests the role of enzymes in decolorizing an extensive variety of textile dyes, thereby, aiding in understanding the enzyme mechanisms in Bioremediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shantkriti Srinivasan
- Department of Biotechnology, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Krishnankoil, 626126, Tamil Nadu, India; PG & Research Department of Biotechnology, National College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, 620001, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Senthil Kumar Sadasivam
- Geobiotechnology Laboratory, National College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, 620001, Tamil Nadu, India; PG & Research Department of Botany, National College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, 620001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Seshan Gunalan
- CAS in Crystallography and Biophysics, Guindy Campus, University of Madras, Chennai, 600025, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gnanendra Shanmugam
- Department of Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, South Korea
| | - Gugan Kothandan
- CAS in Crystallography and Biophysics, Guindy Campus, University of Madras, Chennai, 600025, Tamil Nadu, India
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Wang C, Greene D, Xiao L, Qi R, Luo R. Recent Developments and Applications of the MMPBSA Method. Front Mol Biosci 2018; 4:87. [PMID: 29367919 PMCID: PMC5768160 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2017.00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The Molecular Mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann Surface Area (MMPBSA) approach has been widely applied as an efficient and reliable free energy simulation method to model molecular recognition, such as for protein-ligand binding interactions. In this review, we focus on recent developments and applications of the MMPBSA method. The methodology review covers solvation terms, the entropy term, extensions to membrane proteins and high-speed screening, and new automation toolkits. Recent applications in various important biomedical and chemical fields are also reviewed. We conclude with a few future directions aimed at making MMPBSA a more robust and efficient method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhao Wang
- Chemical and Materials Physics Graduate Program, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - D'Artagnan Greene
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Li Xiao
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ruxi Qi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ray Luo
- Chemical and Materials Physics Graduate Program, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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