Effects of music composed by Mozart and Ligeti on blood pressure and heart rate circadian rhythms in normotensive and hypertensive rats

Music and Emotions in Non-Human Animals from Biological and Comparative Perspectives

The effects of sound stimulation as a sensorial environmental enrichment for captive animals have been studied. When appropriately implemented for farm animals, it can improve welfare, health, and productivity. Furthermore, there are indications that music can induce positive emotions in non-human animals, similar to humans. Emotion is a functional state of the organism involving both physiological processes, mediated by neuroendocrine regulation, and changes in behavior, affecting various aspects, including contextual perception and welfare. As there is very limited information on non-human animals, the objective of this review is to highlight what is known about these processes from human biological and comparative perspectives and stimulate future research on using music to improve animal welfare.

[Effects of classical or heavy metal music in humans and animals: implications for intensive care medicine]

BACKGROUND

The importance of music in intensive care medicine is still controversial and the mechanisms of music are unclear. It is important whether different music styles (classical music [CM], Heavy Metal [HM] show measurable effects on blood pressure (BP) or heart rate (HR) in humans or not. It is also unclear whether behavioral patterns are influenced by music (CM, HM) in animals.

METHODS

We studied the influence of CM (Bach, Orchestral Suite No. 3, BWV 1068) and HM (Band Disturbed: Indestructible) compared to a control group (CO) without music exposure in 120 healthy subjects (60 study subjects, 60 control subjects) and 36 young pigs (18 Pietrains, 18 Wiesenauer Minipigs) according to an identical study protocol (21 minutes of music exposure (CM, HM) or 21 minutes of no music (C0).

RESULTS

We were able to clearly demonstrate in 36 pigs that CM led to significantly more activity behavior than HM or CO (p<0,01). HM caused significantly more stress behavior than CM or CO (p<0,01). In humans, there was a decrease in BPsyst, BPdiast or HR (beats per minute [bpm]) among CM: decrease BPsyst -7,5±9,1 mm Hg, BPdiast -4,9±7,5 mm Hg, HR -7,2±10,2 bpm. This was observed less frequently in HM: BPsyst -3,6±7,1 mm Hg, BPdiast -2,7±6,9 mm Hg, HR -5,9±9,0 bpm. The influence of BP and HR was significantly lower in CO compared to music: BPsyst -2,3±7,2 mm Hg, BPdiast -2,0±7,3 mm Hg, HR -5,8±12,3 bpm.

CONCLUSIONS

BP and HR in humans and behavioral patterns in animals are clearly influenced by music. CM leads more frequently to activity behavior in animals and to lower BP and HR in humans compared to HM or CO. In both animal breeds, stress behavior was observed more frequently in HM compared to CM or CO. Therefore, music may play a role in intensive care medicine.

Animal Signals, Music and Emotional Well-Being

Playing music or natural sounds to animals in human care is thought to have beneficial effects. An analysis of published papers on the use of human-based music with animals demonstrates a variety of different results even within the same species. These mixed results suggest the value of tailoring music to the sensory systems of the species involved and in selecting musical structures that are likely to produce the desired effects. I provide a conceptual framework based on the combined knowledge of the natural communication system of a species coupled with musical structures known to differentially influence emotional states, e.g., calming an agitated animal versus stimulating a lethargic animal. This new concept of animal-based music, which is based on understanding animal communication, will lead to more consistent and specific effects of music. Knowledge and appropriate use of animal-based music are important in future research and applications if we are to improve the well-being of animals that are dependent upon human care for their survival.

Music Therapy Alleviates Motor Dysfunction in Rats With Focal Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Regulating BDNF Expression

Background/Aim: Music-based therapy plays a role in central nervous system diseases. We aimed to explore the effect of different doses and durations of music therapy on motor function recovery after stroke and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Methods: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 1 h, which was followed by reperfusion. In experiment 1, the rats that survived 1 week after MCAO surgery were randomly allocated into four groups (n = 10 per group): MCAO group, 1 h music group (Mozart K.448 music therapy 1 h per day for 2 weeks), 12 h music group (Mozart K.448 music therapy 12 h/day for 2 weeks), and accelerated music group (reversely accelerated music therapy 12 h for 2 weeks, AM group). In experiment 2, the survived rats were randomly divied into three groups: MCAO group, 12 h music group (music therapy 12 h/day for 3 weeks), and 12 h music-R group (music therapy 12 h/day for 2 weeks and rest for 1 week). Three neuroscores were evaluated daily, starting on the first day after surgery until the end of the experiment. The rats were killed 3 weeks after MCAO surgery in experiment 1 or 4 weeks after surgery in experiment 2. Nissl staining of infart core, peri-infarct zone, and motor cortex was performed to assess neuronal survival and regeneration. Western blot and immunofluorescence were used to detect the expression and distribution of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in ipsilateral hemispheres. Results: In the experiment of different music therapy doses, the motor function in the 12-h music group but not in the 1-h music group and AM group was significantly improved compared with that of the MCAO group. The BDNF protein level of the ipsilateral hemisphere motor cortex in the 12-h music group and the 1-h music group was higher than that of the MCAO group. The neurons and Nissl bodies were more in the 12-h music group than in the MCAO group. Immunofluorescence assay showed that a 12 h music therapy induces BDNF and GFAP accumulation at the damage boundary. In the experiment of different music therapy durations, 3 weeks music therapy (12 h music group) induced more longer cell synapses and more clearer cell-to-cell connections than 2 weeks music intervention (12 h music-R group). Moreover, the GFAP morphology in the 12-h music group was more similar to mature activated astrocytes than that in the 12-h music-R group. Conclusions: Music therapy may improve poststroke motor function and promote neuronal repair in the long term. The mechanism may be through stimulating BDNF and GFAP secretion in the injured motor cortex.

Long-Term Music Exposure Prevents Age-Related Cognitive Deficits in Rats Independently of Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Cognitive decline appears across aging. While some studies report beneficial effects of musical listening and practice on cognitive aging, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unknown. This study aims to determine whether chronic (6 h/day, 3 times/week) and long-lasting (4-8 months) music exposure, initiated at middle age in rats (15 months old), can influence behavioral parameters sensitive to age effects and reduce age-related spatial memory decline in rats. Spontaneous locomotor, circadian rhythmic activity, and anxiety-like behavior as well as spatial working and reference memory were assessed in 14-month-old rats and then after 4 and 8 months of music exposure (19 and 23 months old, respectively). Spatial learning and reference memory data were followed up by considering cognitive status of animals prior to music exposure (14 months old) given by K-means clustering of individual Z-score. Hippocampal cell proliferation and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) level in the hippocampus and frontal cortex were measured. Results show that music exposure differentially rescues age-related deficits in spatial navigation tasks according to its duration without affecting spontaneous locomotor, circadian rhythmic activity, and anxiety-like behavior. Hippocampal cell proliferation as well as hippocampal and frontal cortex BDNF levels was not affected by music across aging. Cognitive improvement by music in aging rats may require distinct neurobiological mechanisms than hippocampal cell proliferation and BDNF.

[Effects of music in intensive care medicine]

Music not only plays an important role in everyone's life, it also has effects on heart rate, blood pressure and other physiological parameters. Although music can be interpreted as a subjective feeling, studies have shown that objective parameters such as heart rate, blood pressure and other physiological parameters are clearly influenced by music in various circumstances. Meanwhile, music is used in many medical disciplines, including the area of intensive care medicine. Pain, stress and fear in particular can be influenced positively, but music also plays a major role in patients with delirium and during weaning or surgical interventions. According to many available reports and good prospective studies, a positive effect of music has been observed in many medical disciplines and also in intensive care. Also in postoperative patients, whether from visceral surgery, cardiac surgery, orthopaedics or gynecology, to name just a few, positive effects of music with regard to the parameters pain, stress and anxiety have been demonstrated. Even if many physiological and pathophysiological relationships between the effects of music are not explained in detail, the cerebral processing of different impulses is decisive for the effects of music. The most benefit on health is visible with classic music, particularly in compositions of Bach, Mozart or Italian composers.

Musical Dogs: A Review of the Influence of Auditory Enrichment on Canine Health and Behavior

Simple Summary

Interest in the use of music therapy as a behavioral enrichment tool in veterinary medicine is growing. Indeed, an industry has formed around the development of ‘dog music’, which has been purposely designed to relax dogs. Despite enthusiastic uptake of the idea, there is little empirical evidence supporting the design of such tools. This article summarizes the scientific literature in this emerging domain. It notes that, as a general observation, animals appear less stressed or anxious when exposed to classical music than to control conditions. It also acknowledges that this field is relatively under-researched, and more rigorous studies must be conducted before species-specific recommendations can be made. Such studies must reflect individuals’ and species’ preferences for different genres and songs, taking care to avoid habituation.

Abstract

Music therapy yields many positive health outcomes in humans, but the effects of music on the health and welfare of nonhuman animals vary greatly with the type of music played, the ethology of the species, and the personality and learning history of individual animals. One context in which music therapy may be used to enhance animal welfare is to alleviate stress in domestic environments. Here, we review studies of the effects of music exposure on dogs as a case study for the implementation of music therapy in veterinary medicine. Nine reports of experimental testing for the therapeutic effects of music on dogs were found, with most of these studies focusing on changes in behavior. Overall, exposure to classical music appears to have a calming influence on dogs in stressful environments, with no additional benefit observed from any music purposely designed for dogs (specifically “Through a dog’s ear”). Given the cost effectiveness and ease of implementation, music therapy holds promise in veterinary medicine and animal welfare. However, to address precise research questions, further studies must use clearly defined characteristics of stimulus music in the experimental design, and consider the variability of each individual animal’s physical characteristics and past experience in the selection of candidates.

Music-Enhanced Analgesia and Antiseizure Activities in Animal Models of Pain and Epilepsy: Toward Preclinical Studies Supporting Development of Digital Therapeutics and Their Combinations With Pharmaceutical Drugs

Digital therapeutics (software as a medical device) and mobile health (mHealth) technologies offer a means to deliver behavioral, psychosocial, disease self-management and music-based interventions to improve therapy outcomes for chronic diseases, including pain and epilepsy. To explore new translational opportunities in developing digital therapeutics for neurological disorders, and their integration with pharmacotherapies, we examined analgesic and antiseizure effects of specific musical compositions in mouse models of pain and epilepsy. The music playlist was created based on the modular progression of Mozart compositions for which reduction of seizures and epileptiform discharges were previously reported in people with epilepsy. Our results indicated that music-treated mice exhibited significant analgesia and reduction of paw edema in the carrageenan model of inflammatory pain. Among analgesic drugs tested (ibuprofen, cannabidiol (CBD), levetiracetam, and the galanin analog NAX 5055), music intervention significantly decreased paw withdrawal latency difference in ibuprofen-treated mice and reduced paw edema in combination with CBD or NAX 5055. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first animal study on music-enhanced antinociceptive activity of analgesic drugs. In the plantar incision model of surgical pain, music-pretreated mice had significant reduction of mechanical allodynia. In the corneal kindling model of epilepsy, the cumulative seizure burden following kindling acquisition was lower in animals exposed to music. The music-treated group also exhibited significantly improved survival, warranting further research on music interventions for preventing Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP). We propose a working model of how musical elements such as rhythm, sequences, phrases and punctuation found in K.448 and K.545 may exert responses via parasympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Based on our findings, we discuss: (1) how enriched environment (EE) can serve as a preclinical surrogate for testing combinations of non-pharmacological modalities and drugs for the treatment of pain and other chronic diseases, and (2) a new paradigm for preclinical and clinical development of therapies leading to drug-device combination products for neurological disorders, depression and cancer. In summary, our present results encourage translational research on integrating non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions for pain and epilepsy using digital therapeutics.

Music Affects Rodents: A Systematic Review of Experimental Research

Background: There is rapidly emerging interest in music interventions in healthcare. Music interventions are widely applicable, inexpensive, without side effects, and easy to use. It is not precisely known how they exert positive effects on health outcomes. Experimental studies in animal models might reveal more about the pathophysiological mechanisms of music interventions. Methods: We performed a systematic review of experimental research in rodents. The electronic databases EMBASE, Medline(ovidSP), Web-Of-Science, PsycINFO, Cinahl, PubMed publisher, Cochrane, and Google scholar were searched for publications between January 1st 1960 and April 22nd 2017. Eligible were English-written, full-text publications on experimental research in rodents comparing music vs. a control situation. Outcomes were categorized in four domains: brain structure and neuro-chemistry; behavior; immunology; and physiology. Additionally, an overview was generated representing the effects of various types of music on outcomes. Bias in studies was assessed with the SYRCLE Risk of Bias tool. A meta-analysis was not feasible due to heterogeneous outcomes and lack of original outcome data. Results: Forty-two studies were included. Music-exposed rodents showed statistically significant increases in neuro-chemistry, such as higher BDNF levels, as well as an enhanced propensity for neurogenesis and neuroplasticity. Furthermore, music exposure was linked with statistically significantly improved spatial and auditory learning, reduced anxiety-related behavior, and increased immune responses. Various statistically significant changes occurred in physiological parameters such as blood pressure and (para)sympathetic nerve activity following music interventions. The majority of studies investigated classical music interventions, but other types of music exerted positive effects on outcomes as well. The SYRCLE risk of bias assessment revealed unclear risk of bias in all studies. Conclusions: Music interventions seem to improve brain structure and neuro-chemistry; behavior; immunology; and physiology in rodents. Further research is necessary to explore and optimize the effect of music interventions, and to evaluate its effects in humans.

Influence of acoustic stimulation on the circadian and ultradian rhythm of premature infants

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the development of the circadian rhythm of the salivary cortisol in premature infants and its correlation with the onset of the sleep-activity behavior pattern during the first 3 weeks of life under controlled light:dark conditions. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of acoustic stimulation by audiotaped lullabies or the maternal voice on the cortisol values and long-term sleep-activity patterns. The study was a block-randomized, prospective clinical trial with a study population of 62 preterm neonates (30<37 gestational age). We compared two study groups who listened either to music or to the maternal voice (music: N=20; maternal voice: N=20) with a matched control group (N=22). The acoustic stimulation took place every evening between 20:00 and 21:00 h for 30 min over a period of 2 weeks. The cortisol values and activity-rest behavior of the neonates were determined during the first 3 weeks of life on the 1st, 7th and 14th day. Actigraphic monitoring was used to record the activity pattern continuously over 24 h and a validated algorithm for neonates was used to estimate sleep and wakefulness. The saliva samples were obtained 10 min before and 10 min after the acoustic interventions for the study groups. Additionally, saliva samples were obtained from the control group seven times over a 24-h period (20:00, 21:00, 01:00, 05:00, 08:00, 13:00 and 17:00 h). The cortisol data were analyzed by fast Fourier transformation to assess periodic characteristics and frequencies. Hierarchical linear modeling was further performed for the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

The cortisol rhythm analysis indicated a circadian rhythm pattern for only one premature infant, all others of the neonates showed no circadian or ultradian rhythm in cortisol. Cortisol level of the premature neonates was significantly higher during the first day of the study period at night-time (median: 17.1 nmol/L, IQR=9.7-24.4 nmol/L) than on days 7 (median: 9.6 nmol/L, IQR=4.7-14.6 nmol/L; Tukey-HSD, z=4.12, p<0.001) and 14 (IQR=5.8-13.7 nmol/L; Tukey-HSD, z=2.89, p<0.05). No significant effect of acoustic stimulation was observed on the cortisol concentration and sleep-wake behavior. The activity-sleep rhythm of preterm neonates was dominated by ultradian rhythm patterns with a prominent period length of 4 h (30.5%). Activity frequencies of neonates were also significantly higher overnight on the first study day (mean: 329±185.1 U) than of night seven (mean: 260.2±132.4 U; Tukey-HSD, z=2.50, p<0.05). Quiet-activity patterns increased, whereas high-activity patterns decreased during the observation period. Average sleep time increased significantly during the study time from day 1 to day 7 (Tukey-HSD, z=2.51, p<0.05). In conclusion, premature infants showed higher cortisol levels - without a circadian rhythmicity - and higher activity frequencies in the first days after birth which may reflect an adaptation process of neonates after birth. Cortisol concentrations and the activity patterns were not influenced by music interventions.

Auditory stimulation with music influences the geometric indices of heart rate variability in men

Background

Chronic classical music was reported to increase parasympathetic activitywhen evaluating heart rate variability (HRV). It is poor in the literature investigation of the acute effects of baroque and heavy metal styles of musical auditory stimulation on HRV. In this study we evaluated the acute effects of relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal music on the geometric indices of HRV in healthy men.

Method

The study was performed in 12 healthy men between 18 and 30 years old. We excluded persons with previous experience with music instrument and those who had affinity with the song styles. We analyzed the following indices: RRtri, TINN and Poincaré plot (SD1, SD2 and SD1/SD2 ratio). HRV was recorded at rest for ten minutes. Subsequently they were exposed to relaxant baroque or excitatory heavy metal music for five minutes through an earphone. After the first music exposure they remained at rest for more five minutes and them they were exposed again to Baroque or Heavy Metal music (65–80 dB). The sequence of songs was randomized for each individual.

Results

The RRTri and SD2 indices were reduced during the heavy metal musical auditory stimulation (p < 0.05). No changes were observed regarding TINN, SD1 and SD1/SD2 ratio (p > 0.05).The qualitative Poincaré plot analysis indicated that during relaxant classical baroque music there was observed a higher beat-to-beat dispersion of RR intervals compared with no music exposure and during excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation, showing higher HRV.

Conclusion

We suggest that excitatory heavy metal music acutely decreases global HRV.

Effects of a new postnatal stress model on monoaminergic neurotransmitters in rat brains

INTRODUCTION

Stress and environmental perturbations influence postnatal brain development and may account for the high disability rates of preterm survivors following intensive care treatment. This study aims to investigate the impact of early environmental factors on the monoaminergic neurotransmitter system in the developing rat brain by using an innovative neonatal stress model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After birth, in the experimental groups newborn rats were separated from their mothers and exposed to different stressful stimuli four times a day on day P0 to P6 for 10 min each. To mimic intensive care treatment, the stress protocol applied environmental factors like bright light, noise, and low temperature alternating with pain and handling stress at day- and night-time in a varying sequence. The non-stressed control mothers and litters were left completely undisturbed until sacrificing on day P7 or P20.

RESULTS

Brains of stressed animals revealed significantly higher levels of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) as determined by HPLC-ED and electrochemical detection at day P7 as compared to controls. When returned to their mothers' undisturbed care, juvenile rats at day P20 still showed higher (yet statistically not significant) concentrations of NE and DA in brain. The stressed animals gained less weight with significantly lower body weights at day P7 compared to controls. Their mothers developed various forms of stressed behaviour.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel animal model for postnatal intensive care stress was established leading to changes in brain monoamine levels of newborn rats, while undisturbed maternal care seems to moderate the stress effects subsequently.

Auditory stimulation of opera music induced prolongation of murine cardiac allograft survival and maintained generation of regulatory CD4+CD25+ cells

BACKGROUND

Interactions between the immune response and brain functions such as olfactory, auditory, and visual sensations are likely. This study investigated the effect of sounds on alloimmune responses in a murine model of cardiac allograft transplantation.

METHODS

Naïve CBA mice (H2k) underwent transplantation of a C57BL/6 (B6, H2b) heart and were exposed to one of three types of music--opera (La Traviata), classical (Mozart), and New Age (Enya)--or one of six different single sound frequencies, for 7 days. Additionally, we prepared two groups of CBA recipients with tympanic membrane perforation exposed to opera for 7 days and CBA recipients exposed to opera for 7 days before transplantation (pre-treatment). An adoptive transfer study was performed to determine whether regulatory cells were generated in allograft recipients. Immunohistochemical, cell-proliferation, cytokine, and flow cytometry assessments were also performed.

RESULTS

CBA recipients of a B6 cardiac graft that were exposed to opera music and Mozart had significantly prolonged allograft survival (median survival times [MSTs], 26.5 and 20 days, respectively), whereas those exposed to a single sound frequency (100, 500, 1000, 5000, 10,000, or 20,000 Hz) or Enya did not (MSTs, 7.5, 8, 9, 8, 7.5, 8.5 and 11 days, respectively). Untreated, CBA mice with tympanic membrane perforations and CBA recipients exposed to opera for 7 days before transplantation (pre-treatment) rejected B6 cardiac grafts acutely (MSTs, 7, 8 and 8 days, respectively). Adoptive transfer of whole splenocytes, CD4+ cells, or CD4+CD25+ cells from opera-exposed primary allograft recipients resulted in significantly prolonged allograft survival in naive secondary recipients (MSTs, 36, 68, and > 100 days, respectively). Proliferation of splenocytes, interleukin (IL)-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ production was suppressed in opera-exposed mice, and production of IL-4 and IL-10 from opera-exposed transplant recipients increased compared to that from splenocytes of untreated recipients. Flow cytometry studies showed an increased CD4+CD25+ Forkhead box P3 (Foxp3)+ cell population in splenocytes from those mice.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that exposure to opera music, such as La traviata, could affect such aspects of the peripheral immune response as generation of regulatory CD4+CD25+ cells and up-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in prolonged allograft survival.

From music-beat to heart-beat: a journey in the complex interactions between music, brain and heart

Although the potential influence of music in eliciting organic reactions has been appreciated since the ancient Assyrian and Greek cultures, its relationship with body responses has been believed for long to belong to the field of magic. Growing experimental evidence now attests that some kind of music might indeed modulate several cardiac and neurological functions, as well as trigger biochemical measurable stress-reducing effects in certain individuals, mostly depending on their subjective musical education. On this basis, music has been increasingly used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different diseases in healthy and ill subjects over recent years (e.g., the so called "Mozart effect"), although the underlying scientific background is still poorly understood. The aim of this article is to review the current scientific evidences about the complex and multifaceted interactions between music and human biology.

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) response to two pieces of music ("Eine Kleine Nachtmusik" and "Romanza") combined with light intensity, using recirculating water system

The objective of this study was to further investigate the effects of music on fish physiology, bearing in mind available information regarding the involvement of endogenous and exogenous factors in fish farming. Therefore, Cyprinus carpio (50.5 +/- 0.36 g) were reared in a recirculating water system under 80 and 200 lux and subjected to no music at all (control, ambient noise only), 4 h of Mozart's "Eine Kleine Nachtmusik", or 4 h of anonymous "Romanza-Jeux Interdits" for 106 days. Both music treatments resulted in increased growth performance at both light intensities, with Romanza treatment at 200 lux resulting in better growth performance than Mozart treatment. Furthermore, feed efficiency for the Romanza groups was significantly better than for the control. Although no significant music effect was apparent for brain neurotransmitters, lower anterior intestine alkaline protease levels were detected for both music treatments. Taking into consideration the numerous advantages of recirculating water systems, it should be emphasised that fish response to music expresses the results of various physiological and biochemical processes, especially when fish notably respond differently when subjected to two different pieces of music.