Effect of atorvastatin on iron metabolism regulation in patients with chronic kidney disease - a randomized double blind crossover study

Atorvastatin inhibits ischemia‒reperfusion-associated renal tubular cell ferroptosis by blocking the PGE2/EP4 signaling pathway

Renal ischemia‒reperfusion (I/R) injury is the main cause of acute kidney injury, and its pathological features are manifested primarily by renal tubular epithelial cell injury. The underlying mechanism involves ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells. Atorvastatin (ATO) regulates ferroptosis, and this study explored its role in I/R-induced ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells. We constructed a renal I/R rat model with bilateral renal pedicles using noninvasive arterial clips and placed HK-2 cells in hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) incubators to construct the cell model. The damage to rat kidney tissues and HK-2 cells was assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, and flow cytometry, and the presence of associated proteins was identified through western blotting. Administering ATO markedly lessened the acute kidney damage caused by I/R, decreased the levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (CRE), and prevented apoptosis in renal tubular epithelial cells. Treatment with ATO additionally suppressed the production of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and markers linked to ferroptosis (Fe2+, ROS, MDA, ACSL4, and COX2), thereby reducing acute kidney damage associated with I/R. The expression of PGE2 in renal I/R injury is related to the degree of renal injury, and it mainly regulates ferroptosis by binding to EP4. ATO effectively inhibited the expression of PGE2 and EP4. Overall, this study revealed that ATO inhibited ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells by blocking the PGE2/EP4 signaling pathway, thereby alleviating I/R-induced kidney injury.

Statin Therapy and C-reactive Protein in Patients with Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials

BACKGROUND

Increased levels of inflammation markers in patients with kidney disease, particularly chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an important risk factor. This study explored whether the effect of more potent statins on inflammation in CKD patients is dose-dependent, whether there is any difference between the hydrophilic and lipophilic statins concerning their effects on inflammation markers in patients with CKD, and whether the duration of treatment with statins has any effect on markers of inflammation in these patients.

METHODS

A systematic literature search of Scopus, PubMed, and ISI Web of Science databases from inception to August 2022 was performed. Eligible studies were stratified based on a target population, intervention duration, dosage and type of statins (high intensity statin and moderate/ low intensity), and solubility of statins. Publication bias was evaluated using Begg's regression asymmetry test for visual inspection of funnel plots. Non-linear effects of dosage of statins and treatment duration were also examined by fractional polynomial modeling.

RESULTS

Meta-analysis of 10 RCTs (12 studies) on 264 patients with kidney disease and 254 controls showed a significant hs-CRP lowering effect of the dose of statin. Both hydrophilic and lipophilic statins had significant hs-CRP lowering effects. Meta-analysis of 6 publications (7 studies) evaluating the impact of statins on CRP in 235 patients and 197 control subjects showed a significant negative association between treatment with statins group and CRP levels.

CONCLUSION

Statin treatment decreases significantly the levels of CRP and hs-CRP in patients with kidney disease.

HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for people with chronic kidney disease not requiring dialysis

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular disease is the most frequent cause of death in people with early stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and the absolute risk of cardiovascular events is similar to people with coronary artery disease. This is an update of a review first published in 2009 and updated in 2014, which included 50 studies (45,285 participants).

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the benefits and harms of statins compared with placebo, no treatment, standard care or another statin in adults with CKD not requiring dialysis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Register of Studies up to 4 October 2023. Studies in the Register are identified through searches of CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, conference proceedings, the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) Search Portal and ClinicalTrials.gov. An updated search will be undertaken every three months.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs that compared the effects of statins with placebo, no treatment, standard care, or other statins, on death, cardiovascular events, kidney function, toxicity, and lipid levels in adults with CKD (estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 90 to 15 mL/min/1.73 m2) were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two or more authors independently extracted data and assessed the study risk of bias. Treatment effects were expressed as mean difference (MD) for continuous outcomes and risk ratios (RR) for dichotomous benefits and harms with 95% confidence intervals (CI). The risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool, and the certainty of the evidence using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 63 studies (50,725 randomised participants); of these, 53 studies (42,752 participants) compared statins with placebo or no treatment. The median duration of follow-up was 12 months (range 2 to 64.8 months), the median dosage of statin was equivalent to 20 mg/day of simvastatin, and participants had a median eGFR of 55 mL/min/1.73 m2. Ten studies (7973 participants) compared two different statin regimens. We were able to meta-analyse 43 studies (41,273 participants). Most studies had limited reporting and hence exhibited unclear risk of bias in most domains. Compared with placebo or standard of care, statins prevent major cardiovascular events (14 studies, 36,156 participants: RR 0.72, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.79; I2 = 39%; high certainty evidence), death (13 studies, 34,978 participants: RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.73 to 0.96; I² = 53%; high certainty evidence), cardiovascular death (8 studies, 19,112 participants: RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.69 to 0.87; I² = 0%; high certainty evidence) and myocardial infarction (10 studies, 9475 participants: RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.73; I² = 0%; moderate certainty evidence). There were too few events to determine if statins made a difference in hospitalisation due to heart failure. Statins probably make little or no difference to stroke (7 studies, 9115 participants: RR 0.64, 95% CI 0.37 to 1.08; I² = 39%; moderate certainty evidence) and kidney failure (3 studies, 6704 participants: RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.05; I² = 0%; moderate certainty evidence) in people with CKD not requiring dialysis. Potential harms from statins were limited by a lack of systematic reporting. Statins compared to placebo may have little or no effect on elevated liver enzymes (7 studies, 7991 participants: RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.39 to 1.50; I² = 0%; low certainty evidence), withdrawal due to adverse events (13 studies, 4219 participants: RR 1.16, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.60; I² = 37%; low certainty evidence), and cancer (2 studies, 5581 participants: RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.30; I² = 0%; low certainty evidence). However, few studies reported rhabdomyolysis or elevated creatinine kinase; hence, we are unable to determine the effect due to very low certainty evidence. Statins reduce the risk of death, major cardiovascular events, and myocardial infarction in people with CKD who did not have cardiovascular disease at baseline (primary prevention). There was insufficient data to determine the benefits and harms of the type of statin therapy.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Statins reduce death and major cardiovascular events by about 20% and probably make no difference to stroke or kidney failure in people with CKD not requiring dialysis. However, due to limited reporting, the effect of statins on elevated creatinine kinase or rhabdomyolysis is unclear. Statins have an important role in the primary prevention of cardiovascular events and death in people who have CKD and do not require dialysis. Editorial note: This is a living systematic review. We will search for new evidence every three months and update the review when we identify relevant new evidence. Please refer to the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews for the current status of this review.

Development and validation of a prediction model for iron status in a large U.S. cohort of women

Serum iron levels can be important contributors to health outcomes, but it is not often feasible to rely on blood-based measures for a large epidemiologic study. Predictive models that use questionnaire-based factors such as diet, supplement use, recency of blood donation, and medical conditions could potentially provide a noninvasive alternative for studying health effects associated with iron status. We hypothesized that a model based on questionnaire data could predict blood-based measures of iron status biomarkers. Using iron (mcg/dL), ferritin (mcg/dL), and transferrin saturation (%) based on blood collected at study entry, in a subsample from the U.S.-wide Sister Study (n = 3171), we developed and validated a prediction model for iron with multivariable linear regression models. Model performance based on these cross-sectional data was weak, with R2 less than 0.10 for serum iron and transferrin saturation, but better for ferritin, with an R2 of 0.13 in premenopausal women and 0.19 in postmenopausal women. When menopause was included in the predictive model for the sample, the R2 was 0.31 for ferritin. Internal validation of the estimates indicated some optimism present in the observed prediction model, implying there would be worse performance when applied to new samples from the same population. Serum iron status is hard to assess based only on questionnaire data. Reducing measurement error in both the exposure and outcome may improve the prediction model performance, but environmental heterogeneity, temporal variation, and genetic heterogeneity in absorption and storage may contribute substantially to iron status.

Design and methods of an open-label, randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effect of pemafibrate on proteinuria in CKD patients (PROFIT-CKD)

BACKGROUND

Hypertriglyceridemia is increasingly considered a residual risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Pemafibrate-a novel selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha modulator and a new treatment for hypertriglyceridemia in CKD patients-is reported to have fewer side effects in CKD patients than other fibrates. Appropriate control of hypertriglyceridemia can be expected to improve renal prognosis. However, data on the renal protective effect of pemafibrate are limited. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of pemafibrate on urinary protein excretion in CKD patients.

METHODS

The Pemafibrate, open-label, Randomized cOntrolled study to evaluate the renal protective eFfect In hyperTriglyceridemia patients with Chronic Kidney Disease (PROFIT-CKD) study is an investigator-initiated, multi-center, open-label, parallel-group, randomized controlled trial. Participants are outpatients with hypertriglyceridemia aged 20 years and over, who have received the care of a nephrologist or a diabetologist for more than 3 months. Inclusion criteria include the following: proteinuria (urine protein/creatinine ratio of ≥ 0.15 g/gCr) within three months before allocation, and hypertriglyceridemia (triglycerides ≥ 150 mg/dL and < 1,000 mg/dL) at allocation. In the treatment group, pemafibrate is added to conventional treatment, while conventional treatment is continued with no additional treatment in the control group. Target patient enrollment is 140 patients. The primary endpoint is the change from baseline in the logarithmic urine protein/creatinine ratio at 12 months after study start.

CONCLUSION

This study will provide new findings on the renal protective effect of pemafibrate in CKD patients.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

This clinical trial was registered at the University Hospital Medical Information Network (UMIN) Center (UMIN-CTR: UMIN000042284).

Atorvastatin Inhibits Ferroptosis of H9C2 Cells by regulatingSMAD7/Hepcidin Expression to Improve Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Background

Ferroptosis plays a key role in cardiomyopathy. Atorvastatin (ATV) has a protective effect on ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) cardiomyopathy. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the mechanism of ATV in I/R injury.

Methods

H9C2 cells and cardiomyopathy rats were induced by hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) and I/R to construct in vitro and in vivo models. Cell viability was determined by CCK8. Cardiac histopathology was observed by HE staining. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to observe the mitochondrial morphology. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in cells was analyzed by the biochemical method. ELISA was conducted to calculate the concentrations of total iron/Fe²⁺ and hepcidin. The expression of ferroptosis and SMAD pathway-related genes were detected by qPCR. Western blot was performed to detect the expression levels of ferroptosis and SMAD pathway-related proteins.

Results

In H9C2 cells, ATV reversed the decline in cell viability, mitochondrial shrinkage, and ROS elevation induced by erastin or H/R. The concentration of total iron and Fe²⁺ in H/R-induced H9C2 cells increased, and the protein expression of FPN1 decreased. After ATV treatment, the concentration of total iron and Fe²⁺ decreased, and the protein expression of FPN1 increased. The expression of the SMAD7 gene in H/R-induced H9C2 cells decreased, and the expression of the hepcidin gene increased, which were reversed by ATV. When SMAD7 was knocked down, ATV treatment failed to produce the above effect. ATV also improved ferroptosis in I/R rat myocardium through the SMAD7/hepcidin pathway.

Conclusions

ATV reversed the decline in H9C2 cell viability, mitochondrial shrinkage, and ROS elevation, and improved the myocardium ferroptosis through the SMAD7/hepcidin pathway in I/R rat.

Statins Have an Anti-Inflammation in CKD Patients: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials

Background

Persistent inflammation has been recognized as an important comorbid condition in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and is associated with many complications, mortality, and progression of CKD. Previous studies have not drawn a clear conclusion about the anti-inflammatory effects of statins in CKD. This meta-analysis is aimed at assessing the anti-inflammatory effects of statins therapy in patients with CKD.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in these databases (Medline, Embase, Cochrane library, and clinical trials) to identify the randomized controlled trials that assess the anti-inflammatory effects of statins. Subgroup, sensitivity, and trim-and-fill analysis were conducted to determine the robustness of pooled results of the primary outcome.

Results

25 eligible studies with 7921 participants were included in this meta-analysis. The present study showed that statins therapy was associated with a decreased C-reactive protein (CRP) (-2.06 mg/L; 95% CI: -2.85 to -1.27, p < 0.01). Subgroup, sensitivity, and trim-and-fill analysis showed that the pooled results of CPR were stable.

Conclusion

This meta-analysis demonstrates that statins supplementation has anti-inflammatory effects in patients with CKD. Statins exert an anti-inflammatory effect that is clinically important in improving complications, reducing mortality, and slowing progression in CKD. We believe that the benefits of statins to CKD are partly due to their anti-inflammatory effects. However, stains usually are prescribed in the CKD patients with dyslipidemia, whether statins can reduce inflammation in CKD patients with normal serum lipid needed to explore in the future. Therefore, we suggest that randomized clinical trials need to assess the effect of statins in CKD patients with normal serum lipid. Whether statins can be prescribed for aiming to inhibit inflammation in CKD also needed further study. Trial Registration. The study protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO); registration number: CRD42022310334.

The Effect of Statin on Anemia in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Although erythropoietin-stimulating agents are effective in treating anemia in patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) undergoing hemodialysis, some ESKD patients, especially those with inflammation, continue to suffer from anemia. Statin, an inhibitor of hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase with lipid-lowering effects, may have a pleiotropic effect in reducing inflammation, and thus increase hemoglobin (Hb) level. We searched the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases for relevant studies. The population of interest comprised advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and ESKD patients receiving hemodialysis with statin treatment. The included study designs were randomized control trial/cohort study/pre-post observational study, and outcomes of interest were Hb, erythropoietin resistance index (ERI) and ferritin. PRISMA 2020 guidelines were followed, and risk of bias (RoB) was assessed using the RoB 2.0 tool in randomized controlled trials, and the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS) in cohort studies. We eventually included ten studies (5258 participants), comprising three randomized controlled trials and seven cohort studies. Overall, Hb increased by 0.84 g/dL (95% confidence interval [CI]: −0.02 to 1.70) in all groups using statins, including single-arm cohorts, and by 0.72 g/dL (95% CI: −0.02 to 1.46) in studies with placebo control. Hb levels were higher in the study group than in the control group, with a mean difference of 0.18 g/dL (95% CI: 0.04–0.32) at baseline and 1.0 g/dL (95% CI: 0.13–1.87) at the endpoint. Ferritin increased by 9.97 ng/mL (95% CI: −5.36 to 25.29) in the study group and decreased by 34.01 ng/mL (95% CI: −148.16 to 80.14) in the control group; ferritin fluctuation was higher in the control group. In conclusion, statin may improve renal anemia in ESKD patients receiving hemodialysis and regular erythropoietin-stimulating agents. Future studies with more rigorous methodology and larger sample size study should be performed to confirm this beneficial effect.

Erythropoietin-Stimulating Agent Hyporesponsiveness in Patients Living with Chronic Kidney Disease

BACKGROUND

Erythropoietin-stimulating agent (ESA) hyporesponsiveness is commonly observed in patients with anemia secondary to chronic kidney disease (CKD). Because of its complexity, a global consensus on how we should define ESA hyporesponsiveness remains unavailable. The reported prevalence and demographic information on ESA hyporesponsiveness within the CKD population are variable with no consensus definition.

SUMMARY

ESA hyporesponsiveness is defined as having no increase in hemoglobin concentration from baseline after the first month of treatment on appropriate weight-based dosing. The important factors associated with ESA hyporesponsiveness include absolute or functional iron deficiency, inflammation, and uremia. Hepcidin has been demonstrated to play an important role in this process. Mineral bone disease secondary to CKD and non-iron malnutrition among other factors are also associated with ESA hyporesponsiveness. There is continued debate toward determining a gold-standard treatment pathway to manage ESA hyporesponsiveness. The development of hypoxia-inducing factor-stabilizers brings new insights and opportunities in the management of ESA hyporesponsiveness.

KEY MESSAGE

Management of ESA hyporesponsiveness involves a comprehensive multidisciplinary team approach to address its risk factors. The progression of basic and clinical research on identifying risk factors and management of ESA hyporesponsiveness brings greater hope on finding solutions to eventually tackling one of the most difficult problems in the topic of anemia in CKD.

Physiology and Inflammation Driven Pathophysiology of Iron Homeostasis-Mechanistic Insights into Anemia of Inflammation and Its Treatment

Anemia is very common in patients with inflammatory disorders. Its prevalence is associated with severity of the underlying disease, and it negatively affects quality of life and cardio-vascular performance of patients. Anemia of inflammation (AI) is caused by disturbances of iron metabolism resulting in iron retention within macrophages, a reduced erythrocyte half-life, and cytokine mediated inhibition of erythropoietin function and erythroid progenitor cell differentiation. AI is mostly mild to moderate, normochromic and normocytic, and characterized by low circulating iron, but normal and increased levels of the storage protein ferritin and the iron hormone hepcidin. The primary therapeutic approach for AI is treatment of the underlying inflammatory disease which mostly results in normalization of hemoglobin levels over time unless other pathologies such as vitamin deficiencies, true iron deficiency on the basis of bleeding episodes, or renal insufficiency are present. If the underlying disease and/or anemia are not resolved, iron supplementation therapy and/or treatment with erythropoietin stimulating agents may be considered whereas blood transfusions are an emergency treatment for life-threatening anemia. New treatments with hepcidin-modifying strategies and stabilizers of hypoxia inducible factors emerge but their therapeutic efficacy for treatment of AI in ill patients needs to be evaluated in clinical trials.

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot trial of atorvastatin for nephrogenic diabetes insipidus in lithium users

OBJECTIVE

Lithium remains an important treatment for mood disorders but is associated with kidney disease. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI) is associated with up to 3-fold risk of incident chronic kidney disease among lithium users. There are limited randomized controlled trials (RCT) for treatments of lithium-induced NDI, and existing therapies can be poorly tolerated. Therefore, novel treatments are needed for lithium-induced NDI.

METHOD

We conducted a 12-week double-blind pilot RCT to assess the feasibility and efficacy of 20 mg/d atorvastatin vs placebo in the treatment of NDI in chronic lithium users. Patients, recruited between September 2017 and October 2018, were aged 18 to 85, currently on a stable dose of lithium, and determined to have NDI.

RESULTS

Urinary osmolality (UOsm) at 12 weeks adjusted for baseline was not statistically different between groups (+39.6 mOsm/kg [95% CI, -35.3, 114.5] in atorvastatin compared to placebo groups). Secondary outcomes of fluid intake and aquaporin-2 excretions at 12 weeks adjusted for baseline were -0.13 L [95% CI, -0.54, 0.28] and 98.68 [95% CI, -190.34, 387.70], respectively. A moderate effect size was observed for improvements in baseline UOsm by ≥100 mOsm/kg at 12 weeks in patients who received atorvastatin compared to placebo (38.45% (10/26) vs 22.58% (7/31); Cohen's d = 0.66).

CONCLUSION

Among lithium users with NDI, atorvastatin 20 mg/d did not significantly improve urinary osmolality compared to placebo over a 12-week period. Larger confirmatory trials with longer follow-up periods may help to further assess the effects of statins on NDI, especially within patients with more severe NDI.

Anaemia of chronic diseases: Pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment

Anaemia of chronic disease (ACD) is generated by the activation of the immune system by autoantigens, microbial molecules or tumour antigens resulting in the release of cytokines that cause an elevation of serum hepcidin, hypoferraemia, suppression of erythropoiesis, decrease in erythropoietin (EPO) and shortening of the half-life of red blood cells. Anaemia is usually normocytic and normochromic, which is the most prevalent after iron deficiency anaemia, and it is the most frequent in the elderly and in hospitalized patients. If the anaemia is severe, the patient's quality of life deteriorates, and it can have a negative impact on survival. Treatment is aimed at controlling the underlying disease and correcting anaemia. Sometimes intravenous iron and EPO have been used, but the therapeutic future is directed against hepcidin, which is the final target of anaemia.

Quality assessment of unsaturated iron-binding protein capacity in Iraqi patients undergoing hemodialysis

Hemodialysis is autoimmune disease result from inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. It is characterized by renal glomeruli damage, podocyte injury, tubule interstitial, and proteinuria. Electrolyte balance is the main function of the renal and any form of electrolyte disorders may lead to excess blood volume, hypertension, and difficulty in maintaining natural blood sodium. Renal erythropoietin has an important role in the balance of vascular active substances, such as prostaglandins and thromboxanes; therefore, patients undergoing hemodialysis observe decreased production of erythropoietin with iron loss through hemodialysis machine as well as weakened iron absorption and mobilization from the intestine to the bloodstream. Ferritin, total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), unsaturated iron-binding protein capacity (UIBC), iron free, and transferrin are used to confirm iron status. According the clinical characterization of the results, no normality was observed in patients undergoing hemodialysis. There was hypertension, anemia, lean symptoms and equal distribution of age parallel with developed disease, there was significant increased in renal function except albumin, it was decreased in the patients compared with control groups. In addition, there was a decreased level of iron status in all parameters such as packed cell volume (%), TIBC, UIBC, iron free, and transferrin except ferritin; there was an increased level of iron status in all parameters in patients compared with control groups.

The Influence of Inflammation on Anemia in CKD Patients

Anemia is frequently observed in the course of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and it is associated with diminishing the quality of a patient’s life. It also enhances morbidity and mortality and hastens the CKD progression rate. Patients with CKD frequently suffer from a chronic inflammatory state which is related to a vast range of underlying factors. The results of studies have demonstrated that persistent inflammation may contribute to the variability in Hb levels and hyporesponsiveness to erythropoietin stimulating agents (ESA), which are frequently observed in CKD patients. The understanding of the impact of inflammatory cytokines on erythropoietin production and hepcidin synthesis will enable one to unravel the net of interactions of multiple factors involved in the pathogenesis of the anemia of chronic disease. It seems that anti-cytokine and anti-oxidative treatment strategies may be the future of pharmacological interventions aiming at the treatment of inflammation-associated hyporesponsiveness to ESA. The discovery of new therapeutic approaches towards the treatment of anemia in CKD patients has become highly awaited. The treatment of anemia with erythropoietin (EPO) was associated with great benefits for some patients but not all.

Anemia of Inflammation with An Emphasis on Chronic Kidney Disease

Iron is vital for a vast variety of cellular processes and its homeostasis is strictly controlled and regulated. Nevertheless, disorders of iron metabolism are diverse and can be caused by insufficiency, overload or iron mal-distribution in tissues. Iron deficiency (ID) progresses to iron-deficiency anemia (IDA) after iron stores are depleted. Inflammation is of diverse etiology in anemia of chronic disease (ACD). It results in serum hypoferremia and tissue hyperferritinemia, which are caused by elevated serum hepcidin levels, and this underlies the onset of functional iron-deficiency anemia. Inflammation is also inhibitory to erythropoietin function and may directly increase hepcidin level, which influences iron metabolism. Consequently, immune responses orchestrate iron metabolism, aggravate iron sequestration and, ultimately, impair the processes of erythropoiesis. Hence, functional iron-deficiency anemia is a risk factor for several ailments, disorders and diseases. Therefore, therapeutic strategies depend on the symptoms, severity, comorbidities and the associated risk factors of anemia. Oral iron supplements can be employed to treat ID and mild anemia particularly, when gastrointestinal intolerance is minimal. Intravenous (IV) iron is the option in moderate and severe anemic conditions, for patients with compromised intestinal integrity, or when oral iron is refractory. Erythropoietin (EPO) is used to treat functional iron deficiency, and blood transfusion is restricted to refractory patients or in life-threatening emergency situations. Despite these interventions, many patients remain anemic and do not respond to conventional treatment approaches. However, various novel therapies are being developed to treat persistent anemia in patients.