Physico-chemical and hygienic property modifications of stainless steel surfaces induced by conditioning with food and detergent

Effect of Hydrophobic or Hydrophilic Characteristics of B. cereus Spores on Their Resistance to Detergents

ABSTRACT

Bacillus cereus spores have the ability to adhere to solid surfaces, including stainless steel, a material widely used in food industries. Adhesion of spores allows recontamination during food processing, and cleaning and disinfection are largely used by industries to control them. Hence, this study aims to assess the detachment capacity (or removing activity) of detergents based on sodium hydroxide, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and chlorine against two adhered B. cereus spores (one hydrophobic and other hydrophilic) to stainless steel surfaces. Microorganism adhesion on the surfaces reached 5.5 log CFU/cm2 for the two strains studied. Two protocols composed of combinations of chemical compounds, concentration, temperature, and contact time were tested. The inactivation kinetics shapes were convex and modeled by the Weibull model. The effects of temperature and biocide concentration were quantified using a Bigelow-like model. The temperature applied during the cleaning-in-place treatment is an important factor acting on the speed of inactivation or detachment of B. cereus spores. However, this efficiency depends on the hydrophobic characteristics of B. cereus spores. The concentration of detergent and acid also affects the inactivation rate, whereas the characteristic of hydrophobicity does not intervene for the chlorine alkaline treatments.

HIGHLIGHTS

The Removal of Meat Exudate and Escherichia coli from Stainless Steel and Titanium Surfaces with Irregular and Regular Linear Topographies

Bacterial retention and organic fouling on meat preparation surfaces can be influenced by several factors. Surfaces with linear topographies and defined chemistries were used to determine how the orientation of the surface features affected cleaning efficacy. Fine polished (irregular linear) stainless steel (FPSS), titanium coated fine polished (irregular linear) stainless steel (TiFP), and topographically regular, linear titanium coated surfaces (RG) were fouled with Escherichia coli mixed with a meat exudate (which was utilised as a conditioning film). Surfaces were cleaned along or perpendicular to the linear features for one, five, or ten wipes. The bacteria were most easily removed from the titanium coated and regular featured surfaces. The direction of cleaning (along or perpendicular to the surface features) did not influence the amount of bacteria retained, but meat extract was more easily removed from the surfaces when cleaned in the direction along the linear surface features. Following ten cleans, there was no significant difference in the amount of cells or meat exudate retained on the surfaces cleaned in either direction. This study demonstrated that for the E. coli cells, the TiFP and RG surfaces were easiest to clean. However, the direction of the clean was important for the removal of the meat exudate from the surfaces.

Micro- and Nanotopography Sensitive Bacterial Attachment Mechanisms: A Review

Bacterial attachment to material surfaces can lead to the development of biofilms that cause severe economic and health problems. The outcome of bacterial attachment is determined by a combination of bacterial sensing of material surfaces by the cell and the physicochemical factors in the near-surface environment. This paper offers a systematic review of the effects of surface topography on a range of antifouling mechanisms, with a focus on how topographical scale, from micro- to nanoscale, may influence bacterial sensing of and attachment to material surfaces. A good understanding of these mechanisms can facilitate the development of antifouling surfaces based on surface topography, with applications in various sectors of human life and activity including healthcare, food, and water treatment.

Effect of a new regeneration process by adsorption-coagulation and flocculation on the physicochemical properties and the detergent efficiency of regenerated cleaning solutions

Reprocessing soiled cleaning-in-place (CIP) solutions has large economic and environmental costs, and it would be cheaper and greener to recycle them. In food industries, recycling of CIP solutions requires a suitable green process engineered to take into account the extreme physicochemical conditions of cleaning while not altering the process efficiency. To this end, an innovative treatment process combining adsorption-coagulation with flocculation was tested on multiple recycling of acid and basic cleaning solutions. In-depth analysis of time-course evolutions was carried out in the physicochemical properties (concentration, surface tension, viscosity, COD, total nitrogen) of these solutions over the course of successive regenerations. Cleaning and disinfection efficiencies were assessed based on both microbiological analyses and organic matter detachment and solubilization from fouled stainless steel surfaces. Microbiological analyses using a resistant bacterial strain (Bacillus subtilis spores) highlighted that solutions regenerated up to 20 times maintained the same bactericidal efficiency as de novo NaOH solutions. The cleanability of stainless steel surfaces showed that regenerated solutions allow better surface wettability, which goes to explain the improved detachment and solubilization found on different types of organic and inorganic fouling.

Molybdenum doped titanium dioxide photocatalytic coatings for use as hygienic surfaces: the effect of soiling on antimicrobial activity

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) surfaces doped with molybdenum (Mo) were investigated to determine if their photocatalytic ability could enhance process hygiene in the brewery industry. Doping TiO2 with Mo showed a 5-log reduction in bacterial counts within 4 to 24 h and a 1-log reduction in yeast numbers within 72 h. The presence of a dilute brewery soil on the surface did not interfere with antimicrobial activity. The TiO2-Mo surface was also active in the dark, showing a 5-log reduction in bacteria within 4 to 24 h and a 1-log reduction in yeast numbers within 72 h, suggesting it could have a novel dual function, being antimicrobial and photocatalytic. The study suggests the TiO2-Mo coating could act as a secondary barrier in helping prevent the build-up of microbial contamination on surfaces within the brewery industry, in particular in between cleaning/disinfection regimes during long production runs.

Microbial pathogen control in the beef chain: recent research advances

Within a recent EU research project ("ProSafeBeef"), research on foodborne pathogens in the beef chain was conducted by using a longitudinally integrated (fork-to-farm) approach. There is not any "single intervention-single chain point" combination by which the pathogens would be reliably and entirely eliminated from the chain resulting in total prevention of pathogens in beef and products thereof at the consumption time. Rather, a range of control interventions have to be applied at multiple points of the chain, so to achieve an acceptable, ultimate risk reduction. Various novel interventions were developed and evaluated during the project, and are briefly summarized in this paper. They include on-farm measures, risk categorisation of cattle presented for slaughter, hygiene-based measures and antimicrobial treatments applied on hides and/or carcasses during cattle slaughter, those applied during beef processing-storage-distribution, use of Time Temperature Integrator-based indicators of safety, and effective sanitation of surfaces.

Using enzymes to remove biofilms of bacterial isolates sampled in the food-industry

The aim of this study was to analyze the cleaning efficiency of polysaccharidases and proteolytic enzymes against biofilms of bacterial species found in food industry processing lines and to study enzyme effects on the composition of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and biofilm removal in a Clean-in-Place (CIP) procedure. The screening of 7 proteases and polysaccharidases for removal of biofilms of 16 bacterial species was first evaluated using a microtiter plate assay. The alkaline pH buffer removed more biofilm biomass as well as affecting a larger range of bacterial species. The two serine proteases and alpha-amylase were the most efficient enzymes. Proteolytic enzymes promoted biofilm removal of a larger range of bacterial species than polysaccharidases. Using three isolates derived from two bacterial species widely found in food processing lines (Pseudomonas fluorescens and the Bacillus cereus group), biofilms were developed on stainless steel slides and enzymatic solutions were used to remove the biofilms using CIP procedure. Serine proteases were more efficient in removing cells of Bacillus biofilms than polysaccharidases. However, polysaccharidases were more efficient in removing P. fluorescens biofilms than serine proteases. Solubilization of enzymes with a buffer containing surfactants, and dispersing and chelating agents enhanced the efficiency of polysaccharidases and proteases respectively in removing biofilms of Bacillus and P. fluorescens. A combination of enzymes targeting several components of EPS, surfactants, dispersing and chelating agents would be an efficient alternative to chemical cleaning agents.

The detection and influence of food soils on microorganisms on stainless steel using scanning electron microscopy and epifluorescence microscopy

A range of food soils and components (complex [meat extract, fish extract, and cottage cheese extract]; oils [cholesterol, fish oil, and mixed fatty acids]; proteins [bovine serum albumin (BSA), fish peptones, and casein]; and carbohydrates [glycogen, starch, and lactose]) were deposited onto 304 2B finish stainless steel surfaces at different concentrations (10-0.001%). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and epifluorescence microscopy were used to visualise the cell and food soil distribution across the surface. Epifluorescence microscopy was also used to quantify the percentage of a field covered by cells or soil. At 10% concentration, most soils, with the exception of BSA and fish peptone were easily visualised using SEM, presenting differences in gross soil morphology and distribution. When soil was stained with acridine orange and visualised by epifluorescence microscopy, the limit of detection of the method varied between soils, but some (meat, cottage cheese and glycogen) were detected at the lowest concentrations used (0.001%). The decrease in soil concentration did not always relate to the surface coverage measurement. When 10% food soil was applied to a surface with Escherichia coli and compared, cell attachment differed depending on the nature of the soil. The highest percentage coverage of cells was observed on surfaces with fish extract and related products (fish peptone and fish oil), followed by carbohydrates, meat extract/meat protein, cottage cheese/casein and the least to the oils (cholesterol and mixed fatty acids). Cells could not be clearly observed in the presence of some food soils using SEM. Findings demonstrate that food soils heterogeneously covered stainless steel surfaces in differing patterns. The pattern and amount of cell attachment was related to food soil type rather than to the amount of food soil detected. This work demonstrates that in the study of conditioning film and cell retention on the hygienic properties of surfaces, SEM may not reveal the presence of retained conditioning film, and thus methods such as epifluorescence microscopy should also be used. This is an essential facet to the methodology design of future work carried out in our laboratories on the effectiveness of the removal of cells and conditioning films from surfaces using different cleaning regimes.

The use of physicochemical methods to detect organic food soils on stainless steel surfaces

Food processing surfaces fouled with organic material pose problems ranging from aesthetic appearance, equipment malfunction and product contamination. Despite the importance of organic soiling for subsequent product quality, little is known about the interaction between surfaces and organic soil components. A range of complex and defined food soils was applied to 304 stainless steel (SS) surfaces to determine the effect of type and concentration of soil on surface physicochemical parameters, viz surface hydrophobicity (DeltaG(iwi)), surface free energy (gamma(s)), Lifshitz van der Waals (gamma_LW(s)), Lewis acid base (gamma_AB(s)), electron acceptor (gamma_+(s) ) and electron donor (gamma_-(s) ) measurements. When compared to the control surface, changes in gamma_AB(s), gamma_+(s) and gamma_-(s) were indicative of surface soiling. However, soil composition and surface coverage were heterogeneous, resulting in complex data being generated from which trends could not be discerned. These results demonstrate that the retention of food soil produces changes in the physicochemical parameters of the surface that could be used to indicate the hygienic status of a surface.

Listeria monocytogenes attachment to and detachment from stainless steel surfaces in a simulated dairy processing environment

The presence of pathogens in dairy products is often associated with contamination via bacteria attached to food-processing equipment, especially from areas where cleaning/sanitation is difficult. In this study, the attachment of Listeria monocytogenes on stainless steel (SS), followed by detachment and growth in foods, was evaluated under conditions simulating a dairy processing environment. Initially, SS coupons were immersed in milk, vanilla custard, and yogurt inoculated with the pathogen (10(7) CFU/ml or CFU/g) and incubated at two temperatures (5 and 20 degrees C) for 7 days. By the end of incubation, cells were mechanically detached from coupons and used to inoculate freshly pasteurized milk which was subsequently stored at 5 degrees C for 20 days. The suspended cells in all three products in which SS coupons were immersed were also used to inoculate freshly pasteurized milk (5 degrees C for 20 days). When SS coupons were immersed in milk, shorter lag phases were obtained for detached than for planktonically grown cells, regardless of the preincubation temperature (5 or 20 degrees C). The opposite was observed when custard incubated at 20 degrees C was used to prepare the two types of inocula. However, in this case, a significant increase in growth rate was also evident when the inoculum was derived from detached cells. In another parallel study, while L. monocytogenes was not detectable on SS coupons after 7 days of incubation (at 5 degrees C) in inoculated yogurt, marked detachment and growth were observed when these coupons were subsequently transferred and incubated at 5 degrees C in fresh milk or/and custard. Overall, the results obtained extend our knowledge on the risk related to contamination of dairy products with detached L. monocytogenes cells.

Characterization of bacterial strains isolated from a beef-processing plant following cleaning and disinfection - Influence of isolated strains on biofilm formation by Sakaï and EDL 933 E. coli O157:H7

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects on Escherichia coli O157:H7 biofilm formation of bacteria isolated from meat site surfaces following cleaning and disinfection. We first isolated and identified, to the genus level, strains of the latter organisms. Samples were obtained by swabbing the surfaces of equipment or floors over areas ranging from 315 to 3200 cm(2) in a slaughter hall, a meat cutting room and a meat boning room of a meat-processing plant. The number of bacteria recovered from these surfaces ranged from <1 to> 10(5) CFU/cm(2). In the slaughter hall, stainless steel was in one case one of the most contaminated materials and in other cases one of the less contaminated. The same observation was made for conveyor belts made of polyvinyl chloride in the boning room. Dominant genera in the meat plant were Staphylococcus and Bacillus which were both 34% of the isolates from the slaughter hall and 14 and 4% respectively of the isolates from the cutting room. Randomly selected isolates of each of the genera recovered from the slaughter hall were cultured with E. coli O157:H7 in meat exudate at 15 degrees C to form dual-organism biofilms on polyurethane. In all cases but one, the isolates increased the numbers of attached E. coli O157:H7. The effects ranged from 0.37 to 1.11 for EDL 933 strain and from 0.19 to 1.38 log (CFU/cm(2)) for Sakaï strain. This is the first time that a resident microbiota of a meat-processing plant has been shown to have a favourable effect on E. coli O157:H7 colonization of a solid surface, which is of great interest from a food safety standpoint.

Effect of different Bacillus subtilis lipopeptides on surface hydrophobicity and adhesion of Bacillus cereus 98/4 spores to stainless steel and Teflon

Various lipopeptides produced by Bacillus subtilis were examined for their ability to modify the surface hydrophobicity of two substrata, stainless steel (SS) and Teflon. These modifications were evaluated by water contact angle measurements. The effects depended on the lipopeptide, its concentration, and the tested substratum. Treatment of SS with different concentrations of surfactin S1 showed an increase of the hydrophobicity between 1 and 100 mg l(-1). On the same substratum, fengycin increased hydrophobicity up to its critical micelle concentration (6.25 mg l(-1)). With higher concentrations of fengycin, hydrophobicity decreased. Surfactin, mycosubtilin, and iturin A decreased hydrophobicity on Teflon. The different effects of these three families of lipopeptides were related to their structural differences. A good correlation was shown between hydrophobicity modifications of surfaces and the attachment of B. cereus 98/4 spores. Enhancement in the hydrophobicity of the surfaces increased the number of adhering spores.