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Souza BMN, Miñán AG, Brambilla IR, Pinto JG, Garcia MT, Junqueira JC, Ferreira-Strixino J. Effects of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy with photodithazine® on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): Studies in biofilms and experimental model with Galleria mellonella. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2024; 252:112860. [PMID: 38330692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2024.112860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus infections are a severe health problem due to the high mortality rate. Conventional treatment of these infections is via the administration of antibiotics. However, its indiscriminate use can select resistant microorganisms. Thus, it is necessary to develop alternatives for antibiotic therapy. Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT), a therapeutic method that associates a photosensitizer (PS), a light source with adequate wavelength to the PS, interacts with molecular oxygen generating reactive oxygen species responsible for cell inactivation, is a viable alternative. This work aimed to analyze, in vitro and in vivo, the action of aPDT with PS Photodithazine® (PDZ) on the methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strain. In the in vitro method, the S. aureus biofilm was incubated with PDZ at 50 and 75 μg.mL-1 for 15 min, adopting the light dose of 25, 50, and 100 J/cm2. In addition, PS interaction, formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), bacterial metabolism, adhesion, bacterial viability, and biofilm structure were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. Subsequently, the strain was inoculated into models of Galleria mellonella, and the survival curve, health scale, blood cell analysis, and CFU/mL of S. aureus in the hemolymph were analyzed after aPDT. In the in vitro results, bacterial reduction was observed in the different PDZ concentrations, highlighting the parameters of 75 μg.mL-1 of PDZ and 100 J/cm2. As for in vivo results, aPDT increased survival and stimulated the immune system of G. mellonella infected by S. aureus. aPDT proved effective in both models, demonstrating its potential as an alternative therapy in treating MRSA bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Müller N Souza
- Photobiology Applied to Health (PhotoBioS Lab), Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (UNIVAP), São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Guillermo Miñán
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata 1900, Argentina.
| | - Isabelle Ribeiro Brambilla
- Photobiology Applied to Health (PhotoBioS Lab), Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (UNIVAP), São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Guerra Pinto
- Photobiology Applied to Health (PhotoBioS Lab), Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (UNIVAP), São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Maíra Terra Garcia
- Department of Biosciences and Oral Diagnosis, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Institute of Science and Technology (ICT), São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Campos Junqueira
- Department of Biosciences and Oral Diagnosis, Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Institute of Science and Technology (ICT), São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Juliana Ferreira-Strixino
- Photobiology Applied to Health (PhotoBioS Lab), Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (UNIVAP), São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil.
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2
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Armijos-Capa G, Tuninetti JS, Thomas AH, Serrano MP. Enhancement of the Photosensitizing Properties of 6-Carboxypterin through Covalent Binding to the pH-Responsive and Biocompatible Poly(allylamine Hydrochloride). ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:3922-3934. [PMID: 38061363 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c13121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
A polymeric photosensitizer was synthesized through covalent attachment of the natural photosensitizer 6-carboxypterin (Cap) to a poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) polymer. The optimization of the functionalization steps and purification procedure is described. The overall yield of the functionalization reaction was 67% to generate the modified polymer (PAH-Cap), featuring a Cap substitution degree of approximately 1% and advantageous spectroscopic properties. Photosensitizing properties of PAH-Cap were observed to occur via both photooxidation mechanisms, i.e., type I and type II. This feature was demonstrated using a biologically relevant target molecule, 2'-deoxyguanosine (dG). The spectroscopic, photophysical, and photochemical behaviors in aqueous environments were studied and compared to Cap. To explore possible further relevant biological applications, experiments with PAH-Cap and dG were carried out at physiological pH. PAH-Cap can generate singlet molecular oxygen and initiate an electron transfer process at pH 7 in air-saturated solutions upon UVA irradiation. Moreover, based on its spectroscopic features, visible light can be used to initiate the photooxidation of biological compounds in water, with many interesting advantages compared to free Cap and other related pteridines. These advantages include an enhancement of the photosensitizing effect at physiological pH and the potential of PAH-Cap for its use as a building block in supramolecular assemblies. The functionalization strategy hereby described can be employed for the preparation of robust photoactive polymers with great potential for its application in photodynamic therapy (PDT) and disinfection technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Armijos-Capa
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CCT La Plata-CONICET, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), La Plata B1904DPI, Argentina
| | - Jimena S Tuninetti
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CCT La Plata-CONICET, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), La Plata B1904DPI, Argentina
| | - Andrés H Thomas
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CCT La Plata-CONICET, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), La Plata B1904DPI, Argentina
| | - Mariana P Serrano
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CCT La Plata-CONICET, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), La Plata B1904DPI, Argentina
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3
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Sartori DR, Miñán AG, Gonzalez MC, Fernández Lorenzo de Mele MA. Different Impact of Suspended Al 2O 3 Nanoparticles on Microbial Communities: Formation of 2D-Networks (Without Humic Acids) or 3D-Colonies (With Humic Acids). MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 85:137-145. [PMID: 35066616 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-022-01961-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The use of metal-based and, particularly, Al2O3 nanoparticles (Al2O3-NP) for diverse purposes is exponentially growing. However, the growth of such promissory market is not accompanied by a parallel extensive investigation related to the impact of this pollution on groundwater and biological systems. Pseudomonas species, ubiquitous, environmentally critical microbes, frequently respond to stress conditions with diverse strategies that generally include extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) formation. The aim of this study is to report that changes in the aqueous environment, particularly, the addition of Al2O3-NP without and with humic acids, induce different adaptive strategies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa early biofilms. To this purpose, early biofilms were incubated in diluted culture media without (control) and with Al2O3-NP, and with humic acids (HA-control, HA-Al2O3-NP) for 24 h. 3D colonies with EPS strings and isolated bacteria in their surroundings were detected in the control biofilms. Unlikely, an unusual adaptive behaviour was developed in the presence of Al2O3-NP. Bacteria opt to disassemble the 3D arrangements and to implement a 2D network promoting morphological and size changes of bacterial cells (small coccoid shapes). Remarkably, this strategy allows their temporarily non-EPS-depending survival without decreasing the number of cells. This behaviour was not observed with ZnO-NP, HA-Al2O3-NP, or HA-ZnO-NP. Physicochemical analysis revealed that HA were adsorbed on Al2O3-NP and promoted the Al(III) ions complexation. This supports the hypothesis that the reduction of toxicity of Al ions and the 3D colony formation in the presence of HA-Al2O3-NP is promoted by the complexation of the metal ions with HA components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damián Rodríguez Sartori
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Alejandro G Miñán
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Mónica C Gonzalez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Mónica A Fernández Lorenzo de Mele
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900, La Plata, Argentina.
- Facultad de Ingeniería, UNLP, 1900, La Plata, Argentina.
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do Prado-Silva L, Brancini GT, Braga GÚ, Liao X, Ding T, Sant’Ana AS. Antimicrobial photodynamic treatment (aPDT) as an innovative technology to control spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in agri-food products: An updated review. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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4Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy with curcumin on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2022; 37:102729. [PMID: 35041982 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.102729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAI) affect approximately 1.5 million individuals worldwide. Among the causes of HAIs in Latin America, Staphylococcus aureus presents a severe danger due to its rapid spread and ease of developing antibiotic resistance. Upon acquiring methicillin resistance, it receives the classification Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), responsible for 40 to 60% of HAIs. The increase in resistant microorganisms led to the search for alternative methods, such as antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT), forming Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), leading bacterial cells to death. The objective of this work was to evaluate in vitro the antimicrobial action of PDT with curcumin in MRSA biofilm. The strains were induced to form biofilm and incubated with curcumin for 20 minutes, irradiated with LED (Light Emitting Diode) 450 nm, at 110 mW/cm2, 50 J/cm2 for 455 seconds, subsequently counting the Colony Forming Units, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) micrographs, Confocal Microscopy images, Resazurin dye test, ROS quantification to assess the effect of PDT on biofilm. The results show that PDT with curcumin reduced the biofilm growth of the MRSA strain. In addition, confocal microscopy showed that curcumin was internalized by S. aureus in the cells at the concentration used, and when isolated, curcumin and the irradiation parameter did not show cytotoxicity. The study demonstrated that the PDT in the established parameters reduced the growth of the MRSA strain biofilm, making it a relevant alternative possibility for the inactivation of this strain.
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López-Molina S, Galiana-Roselló C, Galiana C, Gil-Martínez A, Bandeira S, González-García J. Alkaloids as Photosensitisers for the Inactivation of Bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:1505. [PMID: 34943717 PMCID: PMC8698950 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10121505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy has emerged as a powerful approach to tackle microbial infections. Photodynamic therapy utilises a photosensitiser, light, and oxygen to generate singlet oxygen and/or reactive oxygen species in an irradiated tissue spot, which subsequently react with nearby biomolecules and destroy the cellular environment. Due to the possibility to irradiate in a very precise location, it can be used to eradicate bacteria, fungus, and parasites upon light activation of the photosensitiser. In this regard, natural products are low-cost molecules capable of being obtained in large quantities, and some of them can be used as photosensitisers. Alkaloids are the largest family among natural products and include molecules with a basic nature and aromatic rings. For this study, we collected the naturally occurring alkaloids used to treat microorganism infections using a photodynamic inactivation approach. We gathered their main photophysical properties (excitation/emission wavelengths, quantum yields, and oxygen quantum yield) which characterise the ability to efficiently photosensitise. In addition, we described the antibacterial activity of alkaloids upon irradiation and the mechanisms involved in the microorganism killing. This review will serve as a reference source to obtain the main information on alkaloids used in antimicrobial photodynamic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sònia López-Molina
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Science, Catedrático José Beltran 2, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (S.L.-M.); (C.G.-R.); (A.G.-M.); (S.B.)
| | - Cristina Galiana-Roselló
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Science, Catedrático José Beltran 2, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (S.L.-M.); (C.G.-R.); (A.G.-M.); (S.B.)
| | - Carolina Galiana
- Department of Pharmacy, CEU Cardenal Herrera University, Ramón y Cajal s/n, 46115 Alfara del Patriarca, Spain;
| | - Ariadna Gil-Martínez
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Science, Catedrático José Beltran 2, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (S.L.-M.); (C.G.-R.); (A.G.-M.); (S.B.)
| | - Stephane Bandeira
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Science, Catedrático José Beltran 2, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (S.L.-M.); (C.G.-R.); (A.G.-M.); (S.B.)
| | - Jorge González-García
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Institute of Molecular Science, Catedrático José Beltran 2, 46980 Paterna, Spain; (S.L.-M.); (C.G.-R.); (A.G.-M.); (S.B.)
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7
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Youf R, Müller M, Balasini A, Thétiot F, Müller M, Hascoët A, Jonas U, Schönherr H, Lemercier G, Montier T, Le Gall T. Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy: Latest Developments with a Focus on Combinatory Strategies. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1995. [PMID: 34959277 PMCID: PMC8705969 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13121995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has become a fundamental tool in modern therapeutics, notably due to the expanding versatility of photosensitizers (PSs) and the numerous possibilities to combine aPDT with other antimicrobial treatments to combat localized infections. After revisiting the basic principles of aPDT, this review first highlights the current state of the art of curative or preventive aPDT applications with relevant clinical trials. In addition, the most recent developments in photochemistry and photophysics as well as advanced carrier systems in the context of aPDT are provided, with a focus on the latest generations of efficient and versatile PSs and the progress towards hybrid-multicomponent systems. In particular, deeper insight into combinatory aPDT approaches is afforded, involving non-radiative or other light-based modalities. Selected aPDT perspectives are outlined, pointing out new strategies to target and treat microorganisms. Finally, the review works out the evolution of the conceptually simple PDT methodology towards a much more sophisticated, integrated, and innovative technology as an important element of potent antimicrobial strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaëlle Youf
- Univ Brest, INSERM, EFS, UMR 1078, GGB-GTCA, F-29200 Brest, France; (R.Y.); (A.H.); (T.M.)
| | - Max Müller
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro- and Nanochemistry and (Bio)Technology of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany; (M.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Ali Balasini
- Macromolecular Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany; (A.B.); (U.J.)
| | - Franck Thétiot
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6521, Université de Brest (UBO), CS 93837, 29238 Brest, France
| | - Mareike Müller
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro- and Nanochemistry and (Bio)Technology of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany; (M.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Alizé Hascoët
- Univ Brest, INSERM, EFS, UMR 1078, GGB-GTCA, F-29200 Brest, France; (R.Y.); (A.H.); (T.M.)
| | - Ulrich Jonas
- Macromolecular Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany; (A.B.); (U.J.)
| | - Holger Schönherr
- Physical Chemistry I & Research Center of Micro- and Nanochemistry and (Bio)Technology of Micro and Nanochemistry and Engineering (Cμ), Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57076 Siegen, Germany; (M.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Gilles Lemercier
- Coordination Chemistry Team, Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 7312, Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims (ICMR), Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, BP 1039, CEDEX 2, 51687 Reims, France
| | - Tristan Montier
- Univ Brest, INSERM, EFS, UMR 1078, GGB-GTCA, F-29200 Brest, France; (R.Y.); (A.H.); (T.M.)
- CHRU de Brest, Service de Génétique Médicale et de Biologie de la Reproduction, Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares Maladies Neuromusculaires, 29200 Brest, France
| | - Tony Le Gall
- Univ Brest, INSERM, EFS, UMR 1078, GGB-GTCA, F-29200 Brest, France; (R.Y.); (A.H.); (T.M.)
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8
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Lu Y, Yang B, Zhang H, Lai ACK. Inactivation of foodborne pathogenic and spoilage bacteria by single and dual wavelength UV-LEDs: Synergistic effect and pulsed operation. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Rodríguez Sartori D, Bertuola M, Miñán A, Gonik E, Gonzalez MC, Fernández Lorenzo de Mele M. Environmentally Induced Changes of Commercial Carbon Nanotubes in Aqueous Suspensions. Adaptive Behavior of Bacteria in Biofilms. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:5197-5208. [PMID: 33681561 PMCID: PMC7931186 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c05114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The effects of environmental factors such as sunlight irradiation and the presence of humic acid (HA) on the physicochemical properties of commercial multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) suspended in a simulated inorganic matrix (SIM) and their impacts on bacteria growing in biofilms were evaluated. Both solar irradiation and the presence of HA lead to the dissolution of adsorbed metals on the MWCNT, which are residues of synthesis catalysts. Also, preferential adsorption of certain HA components on the MWCNT induces important modifications in the aliphatic/aromatic relationship of HA components in solution and the generation and release of new moieties. Results demonstrated that the variation of such physicochemical parameters strongly affects the interactions of MWCNT with Pseudomonas aeruginosa sessile bacteria. Thus, the number of attached bacteria increased, and stress responses such as decrease in bacterial size were found in the presence of sunlight-irradiated MWCNT with a particular distribution of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) strands. A shielding effect was observed when HA was added. It was concluded that physicochemical alterations caused by environmental conditions (with/without irradiation, presence/absence of HA) on MWCNT-containing SIM trigger distinctive adaptive behavior of bacteria in biofilms. This information must be taken into account in the development of biologically assisted treatments for organic metal co-contamination of MWCNT-containing media since MWCNT discharge alters the physicochemical properties and composition of the aqueous environment and the response of the biofilms that interact with it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damián Rodríguez Sartori
- Instituto
de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas
(INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Marcos Bertuola
- Instituto
de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas
(INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Miñán
- Instituto
de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas
(INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Eduardo Gonik
- Instituto
de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas
(INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Mónica C. Gonzalez
- Instituto
de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas
(INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Mónica Fernández Lorenzo de Mele
- Instituto
de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas
(INIFTA), CCT La Plata, CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, UNLP, C.C. 16 Suc. 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
- Facultad
de Ingeniería, UNLP, B1900 La Plata, Argentina
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10
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Immobilization of alkyl-pterin photosensitizer on silicon surfaces through in situ S N2 reaction as suitable approach for photodynamic inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 198:111456. [PMID: 33246776 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The tuning of surface properties through functionalization is an important field of research with a broad spectrum of applications. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) allow the surface tailoring through the adsorption of molecular layers having the appropriate functional group or precursor group enabling in situ chemical reactions and thus to the incorporation of new functionalities. The latter approach is particularly advantageous when the incorporation of huge groups is needed. In this study, we report the immobilization of pterin moieties on 11-bromoundecyltrichlorosilane-modified silicon substrates based on the in situ replacement of the bromine groups by pterin (Ptr), the parent derivative of pterins, by means of a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The modified surface was structurally characterized through a multi-technique approach, including high-resolution XPS analysis, contact angle measurements, and AFM. The designed synthesis method leads to the functionalization of the silicon surface with two compounds, O-undecyl-Ptr and N-undecyl-Ptr, with a higher proportion of the N-derivative (1:8 ratio). The alkyl-pterins immobilized via the proposed strategy, retain their photochemical properties, being able to inhibit Staphylococcus aureus growth under irradiation (84.3 ± 15.6 % reduction in viable cells). Our results open the possibility for the modification of several materials, such as glass and metal, through the formation of SAMs having the proper head group, thus allowing the design of photosensitive surfaces with potential microbiological self-cleaning properties.
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11
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Sosa MJ, Urrutia MN, Schilardi PL, Quindt MI, Bonesi SM, Denburg D, Vignoni M, Greer A, Greer EM, Thomas AH. Mono- and Bis-Alkylated Lumazine Sensitizers: Synthetic, Molecular Orbital Theory, Nucleophilic Index and Photochemical Studies. Photochem Photobiol 2020; 97:80-90. [PMID: 32628299 DOI: 10.1111/php.13310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mono- and bis-decylated lumazines have been synthesized and characterized. Namely, mono-decyl chain [1-decylpteridine-2,4(1,3H)-dione] 6a and bis-decyl chain [1,3-didecylpteridine-2,4(1,3H)-dione] 7a conjugates were synthesized by nucleophilic substitution (SN 2) reactions of lumazine with 1-iododecane in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solvent. Decyl chain coupling occurred at the N1 site and then the N3 site in a sequential manner, without DMF condensation. Molecular orbital (MO) calculations show a p-orbital at N1 but not N3 , which along with a nucleophilicity parameter (N) analysis predict alkylation at N1 in lumazine. Only after the alkylation at N1 in 6a, does a p-orbital on N3 emerge thereby reacting with a second equivalent of 1-iododecane to reach the dialkylated product 7a. Data from NMR (1 H, 13 C, HSQC, HMBC), HPLC, TLC, UV-vis, fluorescence and density functional theory (DFT) provide evidence for the existence of mono-decyl chain 6a and bis-decyl chain 7a. These results differ to pterin O-alkylations (kinetic control), where N-alkylation of lumazine is preferred and then to dialkylation (thermodynamic control), with an avoidance of DMF solvent condensation. These findings add to the list of alkylation strategies for increasing sensitizer lipophilicity for use in photodynamic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Sosa
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
| | - María Noel Urrutia
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Patricia L Schilardi
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Matías I Quindt
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Organica, FCEyN, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sergio M Bonesi
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Organica, FCEyN, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Dobrushe Denburg
- Department of Natural Sciences, Baruch College, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mariana Vignoni
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Alexander Greer
- Department of Chemistry, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY, USA.,Ph.D. Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Edyta M Greer
- Department of Natural Sciences, Baruch College, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrés H Thomas
- Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
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Synergistic effect of carboxypterin and methylene blue applied to antimicrobial photodynamic therapy against mature biofilm of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Heliyon 2020; 6:e03522. [PMID: 32195387 PMCID: PMC7075992 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The control of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria is a growing public health problem, and new strategies are urgently needed for the control of the infections caused by these microorganisms. Notoriously, some MDR microorganisms generate complex structures or biofilms, which adhere to surfaces and confer extraordinary resistance properties that are fundamental challenges to control infections. One of the promising strategies for the control of MDR bacteria is antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT), which takes advantage of suitable photosensitizers (PS), oxygen and radiation to eradicate microorganisms by the generation of highly reactive species, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause cytotoxic damage and cell death. Habitual aPDT treatments use only methylene blue (MB), but MDR microorganism eradication is not completely achieved. The key result of this study revealed that a combination of two known PSs, 6-carboxypterin (Cap, 100 μM) and MB (2.5–10 μM) exposed to ultraviolet and visible radiation, presents a synergistic effect on the eradication of a MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae strain. Similar effect was observed when the treatment was performed either with planktonic or biofilm growing cells. Moreover, it was found that after treatment the killing action continues in the absence of irradiation leading to the eradication of the microorganisms growing in biofilm. Therefore, the combined aPDT represents a promising strategy for the management of clinical contact surfaces, disinfection of surgical instruments, biofouling and even antimicrobial wastewater treatment.
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Walalawela N, Urrutia MN, Thomas AH, Greer A, Vignoni M. Alkane Chain‐extended Pterin Through a Pendent Carboxylic Acid Acts as Triple Functioning Fluorophore,
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Sensitizer and Membrane Binder. Photochem Photobiol 2019; 95:1160-1168. [DOI: 10.1111/php.13098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Niluksha Walalawela
- Department of Chemistry Brooklyn College City University of New York Brooklyn NY
- Ph.D. Program in Chemistry The Graduate Center of the City University of New York New York NY
| | - María Noel Urrutia
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA) Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) CCT La Plata‐CONICET La Plata Argentina
| | - Andrés H. Thomas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA) Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) CCT La Plata‐CONICET La Plata Argentina
| | - Alexander Greer
- Department of Chemistry Brooklyn College City University of New York Brooklyn NY
- Ph.D. Program in Chemistry The Graduate Center of the City University of New York New York NY
| | - Mariana Vignoni
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA) Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) CCT La Plata‐CONICET La Plata Argentina
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Vignoni M, Urrutia MN, Junqueira HC, Greer A, Reis A, Baptista MS, Itri R, Thomas AH. Photo-Oxidation of Unilamellar Vesicles by a Lipophilic Pterin: Deciphering Biomembrane Photodamage. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:15578-15586. [PMID: 30457340 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b03302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Pterins are natural products that can photosensitize the oxidation of DNA, proteins, and phospholipids. Recently, a new series of decyl-chain (i.e., lipophilic) pterins were synthesized and their photophysical properties were investigated. These decyl-pterins led to efficient intercalation in large unilamellar vesicles and produced, under UVA irradiation, singlet molecular oxygen, a highly oxidative species that react with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to form hydroperoxides. Here, we demonstrate that the association of 4-(decyloxy)pteridin-2-amine ( O-decyl-Ptr) to lipid membranes is key to its ability to trigger phospholipid oxidation in unilamellar vesicles of phosphatidylcholine rich in PUFAs used as model biomembranes. Our results show that O-decyl-Ptr is at least 1 order of magnitude more efficient photosensitizer of lipids than pterin (Ptr), the unsubstituted derivative of the pterin family, which is more hydrophilic and freely passes across lipid membranes. Lipid peroxidation photosensitized by O-decyl-Ptr was detected by the formation of conjugated dienes and oxidized lipids, such as hydroxy and hydroperoxide derivatives. These primary products undergo a rapid conversion into short-chain secondary products by cleavage of the fatty-acid chains, some of which are due to subsequent photosensitized reactions. As a consequence, a fast increase in membrane permeability is observed. Therefore, lipid oxidation induced by O-decyl-Ptr could promote cell photodamage due to the biomembrane integrity loss, which in turn may trigger cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Vignoni
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas, Dep. de Química, Fac. de Cs. Exactas , Universidad Nacional de La Plata , CCT La Plata-CONICET, CC 16, Suc. 4 , 1900 La Plata , Argentina
| | - Maria Noel Urrutia
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas, Dep. de Química, Fac. de Cs. Exactas , Universidad Nacional de La Plata , CCT La Plata-CONICET, CC 16, Suc. 4 , 1900 La Plata , Argentina
| | - Helena C Junqueira
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química , Universidade de São Paulo , 05508-000 São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Alexander Greer
- Department of Chemistry , Brooklyn College, City University of New York , Brooklyn , 11210 New York , United States
- Ph.D. Program in Chemistry , The Graduate Center of the City University of New York , 365 Fifth Avenue , 10016 New York , New York , United States
| | - Ana Reis
- ICETA/REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences , University of Porto , 4169-007 Porto , Portugal
| | - Mauricio S Baptista
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química , Universidade de São Paulo , 05508-000 São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Rosangela Itri
- Institute of Physics , University of São Paulo , 05508-090 São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Andrés H Thomas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas, Dep. de Química, Fac. de Cs. Exactas , Universidad Nacional de La Plata , CCT La Plata-CONICET, CC 16, Suc. 4 , 1900 La Plata , Argentina
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Silva AF, Borges A, Giaouris E, Graton Mikcha JM, Simões M. Photodynamic inactivation as an emergent strategy against foodborne pathogenic bacteria in planktonic and sessile states. Crit Rev Microbiol 2018; 44:667-684. [PMID: 30318945 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2018.1491528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne microbial diseases are still considered a growing public health problem worldwide despite the global continuous efforts to ensure food safety. The traditional chemical and thermal-based procedures applied for microbial growth control in the food industry can change the food matrix and lead to antimicrobial resistance. Moreover, currently applied disinfectants have limited efficiency against biofilms. Therefore, antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) has become a novel alternative for controlling foodborne pathogenic bacteria in both planktonic and sessile states. The use of aPDT in the food sector is attractive as it is less likely to cause antimicrobial resistance and it does not promote undesirable nutritional and sensory changes in the food matrix. In this review, aspects on the antimicrobial photodynamic technology applied against foodborne pathogenic bacteria and studied in recent years are presented. The application of photodynamic inactivation as an antibiofilm strategy is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Fiori Silva
- a Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences , State University of Maringá , Maringá , Paraná , Brazil.,b LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Anabela Borges
- b LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Efstathios Giaouris
- c Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of the Environment , University of the Aegean , Lemnos , Greece
| | | | - Manuel Simões
- b LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
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Silva AF, Borges A, Freitas CF, Hioka N, Mikcha JMG, Simões M. Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation Mediated by Rose Bengal and Erythrosine Is Effective in the Control of Food-Related Bacteria in Planktonic and Biofilm States. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23092288. [PMID: 30205468 PMCID: PMC6225188 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23092288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The thermal and chemical-based methods applied for microbial control in the food industry are not always environmentally friendly and may change the nutritional and organoleptic characteristics of the final products. Moreover, the efficacy of sanitizing agents may be reduced when microbial cells are enclosed in biofilms. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of photodynamic inactivation, using two xanthene dyes (rose bengal and erythrosine) as photosensitizing agents and green LED as a light source, against Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria innocua, Enterococcus hirae and Escherichia coli in both planktonic and biofilm states. Both photosensitizing agents were able to control planktonic cells of all bacteria tested. The treatments altered the physicochemical properties of cells surface and also induced potassium leakage, indicating damage of cell membranes. Although higher concentrations of the photosensitizing agents (ranging from 0.01 to 50.0 μmol/L) were needed to be applied, the culturability of biofilm cells was reduced to undetectable levels. This finding was confirmed by the live/dead staining, where propidium iodide-labeled bacteria numbers reached up to 100%. The overall results demonstrated that photoinactivation by rose bengal and erythrosine may be a powerful candidate for the control of planktonic cells and biofilms in the food sector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Fiori Silva
- Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences, State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo, 5790, Maringá 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil.
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Anabela Borges
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Camila Fabiano Freitas
- Department of Chemistry, State University of Maringa, Av. Colombo, 5790, Maringá 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Noboru Hioka
- Department of Chemistry, State University of Maringa, Av. Colombo, 5790, Maringá 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Jane Martha Graton Mikcha
- Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences, State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo, 5790, Maringá 87020-900, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Manuel Simões
- LEPABE, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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Resveratrol enhancement staphylococcus aureus survival under levofloxacin and photodynamic treatments. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2018; 51:255-259. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Vignoni M, Walalawela N, Bonesi SM, Greer A, Thomas AH. Lipophilic Decyl Chain–Pterin Conjugates with Sensitizer Properties. Mol Pharm 2017; 15:798-807. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Vignoni
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
- Department of Chemistry, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York 11210, United States
| | - Niluksha Walalawela
- Department of Chemistry, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York 11210, United States
- Ph.D. Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Sergio M. Bonesi
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, FCEyN, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón 2, 3er Piso, Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alexander Greer
- Department of Chemistry, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York 11210, United States
- Ph.D. Program in Chemistry, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Andrés H. Thomas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP), CCT La Plata-CONICET, Casilla de Correo 16, Sucursal 4, 1900 La Plata, Argentina
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Ghogare AA, Miller JM, Mondal B, Lyons AM, Cengel KA, Busch TM, Greer A. Fluorinated Photodynamic Therapy Device Tips and their Resistance to Fouling for In Vivo Sensitizer Release. Photochem Photobiol 2016; 92:166-72. [PMID: 26451683 PMCID: PMC4839978 DOI: 10.1111/php.12538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
We describe progress on a one-step photodynamic therapy (PDT) technique that is simple: device tip delivery of sensitizer, oxygen and light simultaneously. Control is essential for their delivery to target sites to generate singlet oxygen. One potential problem is the silica device tip may suffer from biomaterial fouling and the pace of sensitizer photorelease is slowed. Here, we have used biomaterial (e.g. proteins, cells, etc.) from SQ20B head and neck tumors and whole blood for an assessment of fouling of the silica tips by adsorption. It was shown that by exchanging the native silica tip for a fluorinated tip, a better nonstick property led to an increased sensitizer output by ~10%. The fluorinated tip gave a sigmoidal photorelease where singlet oxygen is stabilized to physical quenching, whereas the native silica tip with unprotected SiO-H groups gave a slower (pseudolinear) photorelease. A further benefit from fluorinated silica is that 15% less biomaterial adheres to its surface compared to native silica based on a bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. We discuss how the fluorination of the device tip increases biofouling resistance and can contribute to a new pointsource PDT tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwini A. Ghogare
- Department of Chemistry and Graduate Center, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York, 11210, United States
| | - Joann M. Miller
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Bikash Mondal
- Department of Chemistry and Graduate Center, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, Staten Island, New York 10314, United States
| | - Alan M. Lyons
- Department of Chemistry and Graduate Center, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, Staten Island, New York 10314, United States
| | - Keith A. Cengel
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Theresa M. Busch
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Alexander Greer
- Department of Chemistry and Graduate Center, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, Brooklyn, New York, 11210, United States
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