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Rafiee M, Abbaspour-Fard MH, Heidari A. Analyzing sustainability in bread production: a life cycle assessment approach to energy, exergy and environmental footprint. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-34121-z. [PMID: 38977553 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34121-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Bread production is a pivotal component of global nutrition. However, its extensive production imposes significant strain on resources and energy, resulting in substantial environmental consequences. This study focuses on a multidimensional assessment of the environmental sustainability of the bread life cycle as a case study in Iran. By integrating four life cycle assessment (LCA) methods, this research demonstrates a comprehensive analysis of environmental effects, energy consumption, and exergy demand in bread production. It also identifies the hotspot stages and inputs within the bread production chain. Eventually, it proposes strategies for mitigating the environmental impacts in line with sustainable development goals. Data collection involved questionnaires by face-to-face interviews. The LCA evaluation was conducted using SimaPro software. Sustainability analysis was assessed using four different methods: CML, ReCiPe, cumulative energy demand (CED), and cumulative exergy demand (CExD) method, from cradle to bakery gate. The CML method results indicate that the highest environmental impacts are associated with marine aquatic ecotoxicity (157.04 to 193.36 kg 1,4-DB eq), fossil fuel depletion (11.05 to 12.73 MJ), eutrophication (4.20 × 10-3 to 4.70 × 10-3 kg PO4-3 eq), acidification (8.09 × 10-3 to 9.16 × 10-3 kg SO2 eq), and global warming (0.61 to 0.69 kg CO2 eq). The ReCiPe method highlights wheat production stages and gas consumption as the most significant contributors to damage in terms of human health, ecosystems, and resource consumption indicators. The CED method reveals that fossil energy accounts for over 97% of the energy consumed during the bread life cycle. Energy consumption per kilogram of bread ranges from 12.07 to 13.93 MJ. The CExD method for producing 1 kg of traditional bread falls between 32.25 and 35.88 MJ. More than 60% of this value is attributed to renewable resources of water used in irrigation during the wheat farming stage, while over 35% is linked to non-renewable fossil resources, primarily due to the consumption of natural gas in bakery operations. To assess the potential decrease in environmental emissions, a sensitivity analysis was performed, considering the effects of substituting natural gas with biogas and grid electricity with photovoltaic electricity in the bakery. Then, three improved scenarios were developed, each demonstrating effective reductions in environmental impacts, with the most remarkable decreases observed in marine aquatic ecotoxicity (55%) and fossil fuel depletion (44%). Overall, the findings demonstrate that Sangak bread production exhibits a more environmentally friendly profile than other types of bread. These results can guide decision-makers in the bread production industry towards implementing sustainable practices that prioritize resource efficiency and environmental conservation. Also, stakeholders can develop strategies to reduce the environmental impacts and work towards a more sustainable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahta Rafiee
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
| | | | - Ava Heidari
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
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Krauter V, Bauer AS, Milousi M, Dörnyei KR, Ganczewski G, Leppik K, Krepil J, Varzakas T. Cereal and Confectionary Packaging: Assessment of Sustainability and Environmental Impact with a Special Focus on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Foods 2022; 11:1347. [PMID: 35564070 PMCID: PMC9101209 DOI: 10.3390/foods11091347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The usefulness of food packaging is often questioned in the public debate about (ecological) sustainability. While worldwide packaging-related CO2 emissions are accountable for approximately 5% of emissions, specific packaging solutions can reach significantly higher values depending on use case and product group. Unlike other groups, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and life cycle assessment (LCA) of cereal and confectionary products have not been the focus of comprehensive reviews so far. Consequently, the present review first contextualizes packaging, sustainability and related LCA methods and then depicts how cereal and confectionary packaging has been presented in different LCA studies. The results reveal that only a few studies sufficiently include (primary, secondary and tertiary) packaging in LCAs and when they do, the focus is mainly on the direct (e.g., material used) rather than indirect environmental impacts (e.g., food losses and waste) of the like. In addition, it is shown that the packaging of cereals and confectionary contributes on average 9.18% to GHG emissions of the entire food packaging system. Finally, recommendations on how to improve packaging sustainability, how to better include packaging in LCAs and how to reflect this in management-related activities are displayed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Krauter
- Packaging and Resource Management, Department Applied Life Sciences, FH Campus Wien, University of Applied Sciences, 1030 Vienna, Austria; (A.-S.B.); (J.K.)
| | - Anna-Sophia Bauer
- Packaging and Resource Management, Department Applied Life Sciences, FH Campus Wien, University of Applied Sciences, 1030 Vienna, Austria; (A.-S.B.); (J.K.)
| | - Maria Milousi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia, 50100 Kozani, Greece;
| | | | - Greg Ganczewski
- Management in Networked and Digital Societies (MINDS) Department, Kozminski University, 03-301 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Kärt Leppik
- Center of Food and Fermentation Technologies, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia;
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Science, Tallinn University of Technology, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Jan Krepil
- Packaging and Resource Management, Department Applied Life Sciences, FH Campus Wien, University of Applied Sciences, 1030 Vienna, Austria; (A.-S.B.); (J.K.)
| | - Theodoros Varzakas
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Peloponnese, 24100 Kalamata, Greece;
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Møller H, Samsonstuen S, Øverland M, Modahl IS, Olsen HF. Local non-food yeast protein in pig production - environmental impacts and land use efficiency. Livest Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2022.104925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Cereal and Confectionary Packaging: Background, Application and Shelf-Life Extension. Foods 2022; 11:foods11050697. [PMID: 35267329 PMCID: PMC8909407 DOI: 10.3390/foods11050697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In both public and private sectors, one can notice a strong interest in the topic of sustainable food and packaging. For a long time, the spotlight for optimization was placed on well-known examples of high environmental impacts, whether regarding indirect resource use (e.g., meat, dairy) or problems in waste management. Staple and hedonistic foods such as cereals and confectionary have gained less attention. However, these products and their packaging solutions are likewise of worldwide ecologic and economic relevance, accounting for high resource input, production amounts, as well as food losses and waste. This review provides a profound elaboration of the status quo in cereal and confectionary packaging, essential for practitioners to improve sustainability in the sector. Here, we present packaging functions and properties along with related product characteristics and decay mechanisms in the subcategories of cereals and cereal products, confectionary and bakery wares alongside ready-to-eat savories and snacks. Moreover, we offer an overview to formerly and recently used packaging concepts as well as established and modern shelf-life extending technologies, expanding upon our knowledge to thoroughly understand the packaging’s purpose; we conclude that a comparison of the environmental burden share between product and packaging is necessary to properly derive the need for action(s), such as packaging redesign.
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Song L, Cai H, Zhu T. Large-Scale Microanalysis of U.S. Household Food Carbon Footprints and Reduction Potentials. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:15323-15332. [PMID: 34729979 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Promoting sustainable food consumption is critical to meet the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals. The existing research using average diets and the individual one-day diet recall data to obtain insights into food carbon footprints (CFs) may neglect the diverse food purchasing patterns in different households (HHs). In this paper, we analyzed detailed grocery shopping records of 57,578 U.S. HHs to evaluate the associated food CFs. The cradle-to-farm-gate CFs of 83 food items were calculated using a process-based life cycle assessment model adapted to the U.S. condition. Using the CF of a healthy and sustainable diet as the benchmark, we quantified the CF reduction potentials for each HH. Our results suggest three key strategies to reduce HH food CFs: (1) lowering the over-purchasing in small (one- or two-person) HHs can achieve two-thirds of the recognized carbon emission reduction potentials; (2) reducing the intake of snacks, ready-made food, and drinks leads to as much as, if not more, carbon emission reduction than changing diets; and (3) more attention needs to be paid to reduce the carbon intensity of food items with large purchased volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Song
- Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hua Cai
- Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Industrial Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Ting Zhu
- Krannert School of Management, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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Henryson K, Kätterer T, Tidåker P, Sundberg C. Soil N 2O emissions, N leaching and marine eutrophication in life cycle assessment - A comparison of modelling approaches. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 725:138332. [PMID: 32304962 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogen fertilisation is an essential part of modern agriculture, providing food for a growing human population, but also causing environmental impacts when reactive nitrogen (N) is released to the environment. The amount and impact of these emissions are difficult to quantify in life cycle assessment (LCA), due to their site-dependent nature. This study compared seven models for direct soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, seven models for N leaching and five characterisation models for marine eutrophication impact assessment, selected to represent medium-effort options for accounting for spatial variation in emissions and impact assessment. In a case study, the models were applied to wheat cultivation at two Swedish sites to estimate climate and marine eutrophication impact. Direct N2O emissions estimated by the models varied by up to five-fold at one of the sites and contributed 21-56% of the total climate impact. Site-dependent models gave both lower and higher N2O emissions estimates than the site-generic Tier 1 model from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Estimated N leaching also varied by up to fivefold at one of the sites and contributed 47-93% of the total eutrophication potential, depending on model choice. All site-dependent models estimated lower N leaching than the site-generic IPCC Tier 1 model. Marine eutrophication impact estimates varied by almost an order of magnitude depending on characterisation model choice. The large variation between models found in this study highlights the importance of model choice for N emissions and marine eutrophication impact assessment in LCA of crop cultivation. Due to the divergence of model outcomes and different limitations of some of the models, no general recommendations on choosing soil N2O emissions model, N leaching model or characterisation model for marine eutrophication could be given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajsa Henryson
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Energy and Technology, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Thomas Kätterer
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Pernilla Tidåker
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Energy and Technology, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Sundberg
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Department of Energy and Technology, P.O. Box 7032, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden; KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Engineering, Teknikringen 10B, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
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Effects of Packaging and Food Waste Prevention by Consumers on the Environmental Impact of Production and Consumption of Bread in Norway. SUSTAINABILITY 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/su11010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Bread is a staple food in Norway, with a yearly per capita consumption of 52 kg. It is an important source of energy, dietary fibre and protein as well as certain minerals and vitamins. Previous studies have shown that bread has a relatively low environmental impact compared with other foods. Food waste studies, however, have shown that bread and other baked goods have a high wastage rate in Norway. On the basis of lower Norwegian wheat yields, it is therefore expected that the environmental impact of bread could be higher than in other European countries. The purpose of this study was to assess the environmental impact of bread from cradle to grave, identify environmental hotspots, examine the role of packaging in bread waste and identify possible remediation measures with a particular focus on the post-farm value chain. The results showed that for every kilogram of bread consumed, the global warming potential was 0.99 kg CO2-eq, the eutrophication potential was 7.2 g PO4-eq, the acidification potential was 8.4 g SO2-eq and the cumulative energy demand was 18 MJ. The principal uncertainty within the calculation was the use of database data for the 21 ingredients. For example, the effect of soil mineralisation, which could give significant CO2 and N2O emissions, was not included because figures have only been quantified for a few ingredients and there is no international agreement on the methodology. The primary hotspot was the production of the ingredients, principally at the agricultural stage, while bread waste took the second place. The highest potential for the reduction of post-farm environmental impact lies in reducing product wastage at the retail and consumer stages. Consumers already employ strategies to reduce wastage, such as using extra packaging and freezing and toasting bread. This study shows that other consumer packaging solutions can keep the bread fresh for longer, thus reducing wastage and the need for the abovementioned consumer strategies. Nevertheless, other researches in this subject have shown that consumer preferences and behaviours play a significant role in the creation of bread waste, and this should therefore be taken into account when planning reduction measures.
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Local versus Global Environmental Performance of Dairying and Their Link to Economic Performance: A Case Study of Swiss Mountain Farms. SUSTAINABILITY 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/su8121294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Optimization Model for Mitigating Global Warming at the Farm Scale: An Application to Japanese Rice Farms. SUSTAINABILITY 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/su8070593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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