Bacterial diversity and active biomass in full-scale granular activated carbon filters operated at low water temperatures

Understanding the cometabolic degradation of sulfadiazine by an enriched ammonia oxidizing bacteria culture from both extracellular and intracellular perspectives

Antibiotics are widely used drugs in the world and pose serious threats to ecosystems and human health. Although it has been reported that ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) can cometabolize antibiotics, little has been reported on how AOB would respond to the exposure of antibiotics on extracellular and enzymatic levels, as well as the impact of antibiotics on the bioactivity of AOB. Therefore, in this study, a typical antibiotic, sulfadiazine (SDZ), was selected, and a series short-term batch tests using enriched AOB sludge were conducted to investigate the intracellular and extracellular responses of AOB along the cometabolic degradation process of SDZ. The results showed the cometabolic degradation of AOB made the main contribution to SDZ removal. When the enriched AOB sludge was exposed to SDZ, ammonium oxidation rate, ammonia monooxygenase activity, adenosine triphosphate concentration and dehydrogenases activity were negatively affected. The amoA gene abundance increased 1.5 folds within 24 h, which may enhance the uptake and utilization of substrates and maintain stable metabolic activity. In the tests with and without ammonium, the concentration of total EPS increased from 264.9 to 231.1 mg/gVSS to 607.7 and 538.2 mg/gVSS, respectively, under the exposure to SDZ, which was mainly contributed by the increase of proteins in tightly bound extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and polysacharides in tightly bound EPS and soluble microbial products. The proportion of tryptophan-like protein and humic acid-like organics in EPS also increased. Moreover, SDZ stress stimulated the secretion of three quorum sensing signal molecules, C4-HSL (from 140.3 to 164.9 ng/L), 3OC6-HSL (from 17.8 to 42.4 ng/L) and C8-HSL (from 35.8 to 95.9 ng/L) in the enriched AOB sludge. Among them, C8-HSL may be a key signal molecule that promoted the secretion of EPS. The findings of this study could shed more light on the cometabolic degradation of antibiotics by AOB.

Insight into the temporal dynamics of microbial succession and ecology mechanisms in biological activated carbon tanks

Biological activated carbon (BAC) has long been applied in China to guarantee water quality and to achieve drinking water regulations. However, a knowledge gap remains regarding the temporal dynamics of microbial communities, particularly microbe-based assembly and co-occurrence patterns. Accordingly, this study investigated the evolution of BAC microbial communities using a pilot-scale system and examined by multivariate ecological combined with high-throughput Illumina sequencing and statistical methods. The results showed that BAC microbial diversity reached its peak in 2 years and declined thereafter. Microbial communities composition was accompanied by significant temporal evolution in the BAC biofilm. Deterministic processes gained in importance along with time, especially homogeneous selection which contributed 59.09 %-75.63 % to the community assembly in 8-yr, 9-yr, and 10-yr BAC. According to co-occurrence network analysis, microbial networks have more unstable structures over time, as evidenced by higher modularity, heightened connectivity, and fewer keystones. Moreover, the interaction between microbial taxa tended to have a higher proportion of competitive relationships during the operation of the BAC tank, ranging from 13.51 % to 76.35 %. Based on these dynamic ecological processes, microbial community succession in BAC biofilm might undergo four phases: community establishment (Years 0-2); community stability (Years 2-5); community quasi-degradation (Years 5-8); community degradation (Years 8-10). The performance of BAC was greatly influenced by community development, and contaminant removal gradually decreased as community succession proceeded. These results add to our knowledge of microbial ecology and provide the basis for further research into microbial communities' regulation strategies in BAC tanks.

Relevance of Candidatus Nitrotoga for nitrite oxidation in technical nitrogen removal systems

Abstract

Many biotechnological applications deal with nitrification, one of the main steps of the global nitrogen cycle. The biological oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and further to nitrate is critical to avoid environmental damage and its functioning has to be retained even under adverse conditions. Bacteria performing the second reaction, oxidation of nitrite to nitrate, are fastidious microorganisms that are highly sensitive against disturbances. One important finding with relevance for nitrogen removal systems was the discovery of the mainly cold-adapted Cand. Nitrotoga, whose activity seems to be essential for the recovery of nitrite oxidation in wastewater treatment plants at low temperatures, e.g., during cold seasons. Several new strains of this genus have been recently described and ecophysiologically characterized including genome analyses. With increasing diversity, also mesophilic Cand. Nitrotoga representatives have been detected in activated sludge. This review summarizes the natural distribution and driving forces defining niche separation in artificial nitrification systems. Further critical aspects for the competition with Nitrospira and Nitrobacter are discussed. Knowledge about the physiological capacities and limits of Cand. Nitrotoga can help to define physico-chemical parameters for example in reactor systems that need to be run at low temperatures.

Key points

• Characterization of the psychrotolerant nitrite oxidizer Cand. Nitrotoga

• Comparison of the physiological features of Cand. Nitrotoga with those of other NOB

• Identification of beneficial environmental/operational parameters for proliferation

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00253-021-11487-5.

Effect of backwashing biologically activated carbon on coagulability of organics in surface water

This study shows if biologically activated carbon (BAC) is backwashed at the correct frequency, a number of benefits can be derived in addition to aiding the subsequent coagulation process. Previous studies have shown that the BAC improves the removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) by subsequent coagulation by decreasing non-coagulable dissolved organic carbon (NC-DOC). However, the actual mechanism of such observation or optimising strategies of NC-DOC removal is unknown. The impact of backwashing on BAC reactor performance in terms of NC-DOC removal and microbial community structure was investigated. A laboratory scale BAC column was operated for more than five months with backwashing at once every five days, but in one cycle it was operated without backwashing for 14 days and the effluent collected at different times from the last backwash was subjected to enhanced coagulation (EC). All the effluent of BAC collected at different days depicted better floc forming characteristics than the feed water which is raw surface water. The effluent collected on day three from the last backwash (BAC-3d) contained the least amount (1.64 mg/L) of NC-DOC despite the highest DOC (3.89 mg/L) of all effluents. The coagulant requirement (5 mg-Fe³⁺/mg-DOC) was minimal for BAC-3d effluent among raw water and all other BAC effluent water samples. This is remarkable given the raw water contained 2.76 mg/L of NC-DOC. The microbial community on BAC granules on day three contained a higher abundance of biodegradable organic matter (BOM) removing microorganisms and low abundance of opportunistic pathogens. Similar performance in terms of DOC removal with the backwash was also observed in the continuous operation of other BAC columns. Possible backwash frequency that optimises the BAC/EC and derives many other benefits is proposed. The BAC/EC combination could help solve many emerging issues cost-effectively hence, needs further investigation.

Microbial diversity in full-scale water supply systems through sequencing technology: a review

The prevalence of microorganisms in full-scale water supply systems raises concerns about their pathogenicity and threats to public health. Clean tap water is essential for public health safety. The conditions of the water treatment process from the source water to tap water, including source water quality, water treatment processes, the drinking water distribution system (DWDS), and building water supply systems (BWSSs) in buildings, greatly influence the bacterial community in tap water. Given the importance of drinking water biosafety, the study of microbial diversity from source water to tap water is essential. With the development of molecular biology methods and bioinformatics in recent years, sequencing technology has been applied to study bacterial communities in full-scale water supply systems. In this paper, changes in the bacterial community and the influence of each treatment stage on microbial diversity in full-scale water supply systems are classified and analyzed. Microbial traceability analysis and control are discussed, and suggestions for future drinking water biosafety research and its prospects are proposed.

Mixing strategies - Activated carbon nexus: Rapid start-up of thermophilic anaerobic digestion with the mesophilic anaerobic sludge as inoculum

This study evaluated the mixing - activate carbon nexus in anaerobic digestion with the aim of accelerating start-up of thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion of food waste and chicken manure using mesophilic anaerobic sludge as inoculum. Results showed that the methane yield in the continuous stirred reactor is 71.3% higher than that of intermittent agitated reactor, and the addition of activated carbon can further improve the yield of methane by 18.2%. Continuous mixing mode followed by intermittent mixing was proved to be an alternative strategy to accelerate start-up of thermophilic anaerobic digestion. The optimum mixing time of 120 s/hour were obtained using computational fluid dynamics modeling. Analysis of genomic annotation metabolism indicated that the addition of activated carbon enhanced the dominant metabolism pathways of amino acid, methane and energy. Results of enzymes gene expression suggested that carbohydrates esterases, glycoside hydrolases and glycosyl transferases were dominant, respectively.

Effect of granular activated carbon pore-size distribution on biological activated carbon filter performance

Proper granular activated carbon (GAC) selection could improve the performance of biological activated carbon (BAC) filters through a combination of adsorption and biodegradation, while the GACs used in BAC filters are now mainly selected according to adsorption function, ignoring biodegradation. In this study, sand filter effluent obtained from a drinking water treatment plant was fed into continuous-flow bench-scale BAC columns operated in parallel over 245 days to examine the effects of GAC pore-size distribution on BAC filter performance, in terms of the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and disinfection byproduct (DBP) precursors. A metagenomic analysis indicated that bacterial community structure played an important role in BAC filter performance. A significant correlation was found between metabolism-related proteins and the volume of micro-level macropores based on metaproteomic analysis. It is suggested that the adsorption saturation was dynamic and that adsorption played a role in the performance of the BAC filters throughout the 245-day operating period. Renewed adsorption capacity, or bioregeneration, was driven by bacterial metabolic activity. Such activity largely depended on the organic matter adsorbed by the GAC, in which micro-level macropores, especially those with diameters of 0.2-10 μm, played an important but previously unrecognized role. The results suggest that more attention should be paid to well-developed pores and pore-size distribution in the production and selection of GAC used for full-scale drinking water biofilters.

Effect of Powdered Activated Carbon as Advanced Step in Wastewater Treatments on Antibiotic Resistant Microorganisms

BACKGROUND

Conventional wastewater treatment plants discharge significant amounts of antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes into natural water bodies contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance. Some advanced wastewater treatment technologies have been shown to effectively decrease the number of bacteria. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of knowledge about the effectiveness of these treatments on antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistant genes. To the best of our knowledge, no specific studies have considered how powdered activated carbon (PAC) treatments can act on antibiotic resistant bacteria, although it is essential to assess the impact of this wastewater treatment on the spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

METHODS

To address this gap, we evaluated the fate and the distribution of fluorescent-tagged antibiotic/ antimycotic resistant microorganisms in a laboratory-scale model simulating a process configuration involving powdered activated carbon as advanced wastewater treatment. Furthermore, we studied the possible increase of naturally existing antibiotic resistant bacteria during the treatment implementing PAC recycling.

RESULTS

The analysis of fluorescent-tagged microorganisms demonstrated the efficacy of the PAC adsorption treatment in reducing the load of both susceptible and resistant fluorescent microorganisms in the treated water, reaching a removal efficiency of 99.70%. Moreover, PAC recycling did not increase the resistance characteristics of cultivable bacteria neither in the sludge nor in the treated effluent.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that wastewater PAC treatment is a promising technology not only for the removal of micropollutants but also for its effect in decreasing antibiotic resistant bacteria release.

Preparation, characterization, and application of macroporous activated carbon (MAC) suitable for the BAC water treatment process

To address the sharp decrease in efficiency of the biological activated carbon (BAC) process at low temperatures, a new type of activated carbon (AC), macroporous activated carbon (MAC), was developed from bamboo waste scraps via a special compression, carbonation and activation process without the introduction of chemicals. MAC contains not only the micron-level macropores (V_maco > 0.71 ml/g) sufficient for bacteria to access and multiply, but ensures the developed smaller pores (particularly micropores, V_micro > 0.41 ml/g) and a higher hardness (>90%). In addition, the desired volume of macropores with an adiabatic function, which will provide livable space environment for bacteria, can be obtained by adjusting the compression ratio (1:5-1:10). Because of the maximum macropore volume (V_maco = 0.805 ml/g) and the most abundant macropore distribution (particularly diameters>10,000 nm), MAC (1:6) was selected for the parallel experiment in the laboratory, taking three representative commercial ACs (PICABIOL® 2, raw coal AC-1 and briquetting AC-2) as controls, in which the filtration effluent of a water treatment plant was used as the influent and glucose was added to accelerate bacterial growth. The results showed that MAC (1:6) exhibited the highest DOC removal and biological activity at room/low temperatures (4 °C), indicating that the abundant macropores distribution with adiabatic function in MAC (1:6) is conducive to the growth and breeding of microorganisms. It is equivalent to artificially increasing the surface suitable for bacteria attachment. This is coupled with the higher adsorption capacity for pollutants supplied by the developed micropores in MAC, which provided the substrate for bacteria growth, thus forming a benign circle for water treatment by the BAC process. The results provide significant technical support for BAC's application, particularly at cold temperatures.

Effect of PVA-gel filling ratio in attached growth membrane bioreactor for treating polluted surface water

Surface water has been facing increasing loads of various types of organic contamination due to human activities. Attached growth membrane bioreactor (aMBR) has been reported as a promising approach in treating polluted surface water. By using bio-carrier to provide biodegradation and utilize organic pollutants as substrates, aMBR was able to integrate biodegradation and physical rejection in one system. The filling ratio of polyvinyl alcohol gel (PVA-gel), which is an important bioprocess contributor in an aMBR system, was analyzed by batch test and lab-scale aMBR in this study. Batch test with various filling ratios (2%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 30%) were carried out. Oxygen uptake rate (OUR) and specific oxygen uptake rate were used for the comparison of bioactivities. Five percent filling ratio had the highest OUR results of 3.6 mg/L h obtained from the batch test. The chosen filling ratios were tested in a lab-scale aMBR system with hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 1, 2, 2.5 and 3 h. Results shown that at HRT 2.5 h, the aMBR system had the lowest membrane fouling. PVA-gel was able to reject more organic matters than a naturally immobilized membrane bioreactor system, and thus mitigated membrane fouling in the aMBR system.

Mixed nitrifying bacteria culture under different temperature dropping strategies: Nitrification performance, activity, and community

In this study, the nitrification performance, metabolic activity, antioxidant enzyme activity as well as bacterial community of mixed nitrifying bacteria culture under different temperature dropping strategies [(#1) growth temperature kept at 20 °C; (#2) sharp1 decreased from 20 °C to 10 °C; (#3) growth at 20 °C for 6 days followed by sharp decrease to 10 °C; and (#4) gradual decreased from 20 °C to 10 °C] were evaluated. It was shown that acclimation at 20 °C for 6 days allowed to maintain better nitrification activity at 10 °C. The nitrite oxidation capacity of nitrifiers was significantly correlated with the relative light unit (RLU) (p < .05) and the fluctuation of superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme activity (p < .01). With serial #3 showed the highest RLU levels and the least SOD enzyme fluctuation as compared to serials #2 and #4. Throughout the experimental period, Nitrosospira and Nitrosomonas as well as Nitrospira were identified as the predominant ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrate-oxidizing bacteria (NOB). The dynamic change of AOB/NOB ratios and nitrification activity in serials #2-#4 demonstrated that AOB recovered better than NOB with long-term 10 °C exposure, and the nitrification performance was mainly limited by the nitrite oxidation capacity of NOB. Applying 6 days acclimation at 20 °C was beneficial for the mixed nitrifying bacteria culture to cope with low temperature (10 °C) stress, possibly due to the maintenance of metabolic activity, antioxidant enzyme activity stability as well as appropriate AOB/NOB ratio.

Evaluating the effects of activated carbon on methane generation and the fate of antibiotic resistant genes and class I integrons during anaerobic digestion of solid organic wastes

The effects of activated carbon (AC) on methane production and the fate of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) were evaluated through comparing the anaerobic digestion performance and transformation of ARGs among anaerobic mono-digestion of food waste, co-digestion of food waste and chicken manure, and co-digestion of food waste and waste activated sludge. Results showed that adding AC in anaerobic digesters improved methane yield by at least double through the enrichment of bacteria and archaea. Conventional digestion process showed ability in removing certain types of ARGs, such as tetA, tetX, sul1, sul2, cmlA, floR, and intl1. Supplementing AC in anaerobic digester enhanced the removal of most of the ARGs in mono-digestion of food waste. The effects tended to be minimal in co-digestion of co-substrates such as chicken manure and waste activated sludge, both of which contain a certain amount of antibiotics.

From source to filter: changes in bacterial community composition during potable water treatment

Rural communities rely on surface water reservoirs for potable water. Effective removal of chemical contaminants and bacterial pathogens from these reservoirs requires an understanding of the bacterial community diversity that is present. In this study, we carried out a 16S rRNA-based profiling approach to describe the bacterial consortia in the raw surface water entering the water treatment plants of 2 rural communities. Our results show that source water is dominated by the Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Cyanobacteria, with some evidence of seasonal effects altering the predominant groups at each location. A subsequent community analysis of transects of a biological carbon filter in the water treatment plant revealed a significant increase in the proportion of Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Planctomycetes, and Nitrospirae relative to raw water. Also, very few enteric coliforms were identified in either the source water or within the filter, although Mycobacterium was of high abundance and was found throughout the filter along with Aeromonas, Legionella, and Pseudomonas. This study provides valuable insight into bacterial community composition within drinking water treatment facilities, and the importance of implementing appropriate disinfection practices to ensure safe potable water for rural communities.

Ammonium removal of drinking water at low temperature by activated carbon filter biologically enhanced with heterotrophic nitrifying bacteria

We sought to confirm whether use of Acinetobacter strains Y7 and Y16, both strains of heterotrophic nitrifying bacteria, was practical for removing ammonium (NH4 (+)-N) from drinking water at low temperatures. To test this, ammonium-containing drinking water was treated with strains Y7 and Y16 at 8 and 2 °C. Continuous ammonium treatment was conducted in order to evaluate the performance of three biologically enhanced activated carbon (BEAC) filters in removing ammonium. The three BEAC filters were inoculated with strain Y7, strain Y16, and a mixture of strains Y7 and Y16, respectively. A granular activated carbon (GAC) filter, without inoculation by any strains, was tested in parallel with the BEAC filters as control. The results indicated that NH4 (+)-N removal was significant when a BEAC filter was inoculated with the mixture of strains Y7 and Y16 (BEAC-III filter). Amounts of 0.44 ± 0.05 and 0.25 ± 0.05 mg L(-1) NH4 (+)-N were removed using the BEAC-III filter at 8 and 2 °C, respectively. These values were 2.8-4.0-fold higher than the values of ammonium removal acquired using the GAC filter. The synergistic effect of using strains Y7 and Y16 in concert was the cause of the high-ammonium removal efficiency achieved by using the BEAC-III filter at low temperatures. In addition, a high C/N ratio may promote NH4 (+)-N removal efficiency by improving biomass and microbial activity. This study provides new insight into the use of biofilters to achieve biological removal of ammonium at low temperature.

Treatment stage associated changes in cellular and molecular microbial markers during the production of drinking water at the Vansjø water works

The production of a drinking water that meets current aesthetic, microbiological and chemical standards, generally requires a combination of mechanical purification and disinfection in a multi-component treatment chain. Treatment choices and optimisation of water processing is best informed by using markers (including microbiological parameters) which indicate how each stage contributes to the production of the potable water. The present study combines culture-based and a number of culture-independent analyses to indicate what is happening at each stage of a state-of-the-art water treatment chain at Vansjø near the city of Moss in Norway. We show that particularly clarification with flotation and post-chlorination have profound and positive effects on water quality with respect to the removal and inactivation of microbes. Post-chlorination achieved better disinfection of the water than UV-treatment and was of paramount importance, as the penultimate step filtration through granular activated shed microbes to the water. Cloning and sequencing showed that some clones present in the raw water were detected at all stages in the treatment process, perhaps providing examples of microbes breaching physically all barriers in the treatment process. Results from the study should be useful in the improvement and maintenance of the treatment process at the Vansjø plant and others.