Characteristics of spicy food consumption and its relation to lifestyle behaviours: results from 0.5 million adults

Associations between diet quality, demographics, health conditions and spice and herb intake of adults with chronic kidney disease

Scant literature has been able to demonstrate an association between dietary habits and spice and herb consumption, especially for those who have chronic kidney disease. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine the frequency and quantity of spices and herbs consumed and 2) determine the associations between diet quality and its food components, demographics, and health conditions with spice and herb frequency and variety consumption of adults with chronic kidney disease. A cross-sectional online study was conducted with adults with various stages of chronic kidney disease (n = 71). Participants responded to an online demographic, diet and spice and herb questionnaire on RedCap. Diet quality was determined through the diet questionnaire. Descriptives, frequencies and Spearman correlations were conducted using SPSS v28 with a significance of p<0.05. Most participants were in chronic kidney disease stage 3 (42.3%) with a majority (98.6%) self-identifying as non-Hispanic white. On average, participants consumed black pepper more than once daily (47.9%) with the spice quantity at 5 g. The median diet quality score was 38.5 (range 31.5-48.5). Positive associations were identified with overall diet quality scores and certain spices such as basil (r = 0.33; p<0.01) and cinnamon (r = 0.37; p<0.002). Further associations were seen with food groups, self-identifying as white and health conditions with spice frequency and variety of spices and herbs consumed. Overall, positive associations were observed with diet quality and spice and herb intake, in which higher diet quality scores would indicate higher consumption of spices and herbs. Further research should focus on diet quality and spice and herb consumption in reducing progression of this disease.

Sex-specific association between regional gray matter volume and spicy food craving or consumption

Both food cravings and long-term food consumption have been associated with brain changes. Sex differences in food craving are robust and substantial. The current study examined the potential sex-specific neuroanatomical correlates of spicy food craving and habitual spicy food consumption. One hundred and forty-nine participants completed the Spicy Food Consumption Questionnaire and the Spicy Food Craving Questionnaire while their structural brain images were acquired using a 3-T scanner. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine regional gray matter volume (GMV) in relation to questionnaire scores. GMV of the right supplementary motor area (SMA) and the dorsal superior frontal gyrus were significantly correlated with spicy food craving in women, whereas spicy food craving was associated with greater GMV of the inferior temporal gyrus and the occipital gyrus in men. In addition, habitual spicy food consumption was correlated with increased GMV of the bilateral putamen, left postcentral gyrus, and right paracentral lobule, which was more pronounced among female participants. These findings suggest distinct central neuroanatomical reflections of trait craving or habitual exposure to spicy flavors. The sex-specific correlation between spicy food craving and brain anatomical features may be related to food-related sensory imagery or cognitive control.

Are We Ready to Recommend Capsaicin for Disorders Other Than Neuropathic Pain?

Capsaicin, a lipophilic, volatile compound, is responsible for the pungent properties of chili peppers. In recent years, a significant increase in investigations into its properties has allowed the production of new formulations and the development of tools with biotechnological, diagnostic, and potential therapeutic applications. Most of these studies show beneficial effects, improving antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status, inducing thermogenesis, and reducing white adipose tissue. Other mechanisms, including reducing food intake and improving intestinal dysbiosis, are also described. In this way, the possible clinical application of such compound is expanding every year. This opinion article aims to provide a synthesis of recent findings regarding the mechanisms by which capsaicin participates in the control of non-communicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and dyslipidemia.

Association between spicy food and hypertension among Han Chinese aged 30-79 years in Sichuan Basin: a population-based cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

While spicy food is believed to have cardiovascular-protective effects, its impact on hypertension remains uncertain due to conflicting findings from previous studies. This study aimed to explore the association between spicy food and hypertension in Sichuan Basin, China.

METHODS

The baseline data of 43,657 residents aged 30-79 in the Sichuan Basin were analyzed including a questionnaire survey (e.g., sociodemographics, diet and lifestyle, medical history), medical examinations (e.g., height, body weight, and blood pressure), and clinical laboratory tests (e.g., blood and urine specimens). Participants were recruited by multi-stage, stratified cluster sampling in consideration of both sex ratio and age ratio between June 2018 and February 2019. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to explore the effect of spicy food on hypertension and multivariable linear regression was applied to estimate the effect of spicy food on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP).

RESULTS

Concerning hypertension, negative associations with spicy food consumption were observed only in females: compared to those who do not eat spicy food, the odds ratios of consuming spicy food 6-7 days/week, consuming spicy food with strong strength, and years of eating spicy food-to-age ratio were 0.886 (0.799, 0.982), 0.757 (0.587, 0.977), 0.632 (0.505, 0.792), respectively. No significant association was found in males (All P trends > 0.05). In the stratified analyses, participants in the subgroup who were 50 to 79 years old (OR, 95%CI: 0.814, 0.763, 0.869), habitually snored (OR, 95%CI: 0.899, 0.829, 0.976), had a BMI < 24 kg/m2 (OR, 95%CI: 0.886, 0.810, 0.969), had a normal waist circumference (OR, 95%CI: 0.898, 0.810, 0.997), and had no dyslipidemia (OR, 95%CI: 0.897, 0.835, 0.964) showed a significantly stronger association. For SBP, consuming spicy food had negative effects in both genders, but the effect was smaller in males compared to females: among males, the β coefficients for consuming spicy food 1-2 days/week, weak strength, and years of eating spicy food-to-age ratio were 0.931 (-1.832, -0.030), -0.639 (-1.247, -0.032), and - 2.952 (-4.413, -1.492), respectively; among females, the β coefficients for consuming spicy food 3-5 days/week, 6-7 days/week, weak strength, moderate strength, and years of eating spicy food-to-age ratio were - 1.251 (-2.115, -0.388), -1.215 (-1.897, -0.534), -0.788 (-1.313, -0.263), -1.807 (-2.542, -1.072), and - 5.853 (-7.195, -4.512), respectively. For DBP, only a positive association between the years of eating spicy food-to-age ratio and DBP was found in males with β coefficient (95%CI ) of 1.300 (0.338, 2.263); Little association was found in females (all P trends > 0.05), except for a decrease of 0.591 mmHg ( 95%CI: -1.078, -0.105) in DBP among participants who consumed spicy food 1-2 days/week, compared to those who did not consume spicy food.

CONCLUSION

Spicy food may lower SBP and has an antihypertensive effect, particularly beneficial for women and individuals with fewer risk factors in the Sichuan Basin. Spicy food consumption may decrease DBP in women but increase it in men. Further multicenter prospective cohort studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Association between Eating Habits and Sodium Intake among Chinese University Students

(1) Background: Insufficient evidence exists regarding the dietary habits that may contribute to high sodium intake among college students in China. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the dietary sodium intake of college students in Hunan and its association with their dietary habits. (2) Methods: In total, 585 university students from Hunan were recruited for this study. The sodium Food Frequency Questionnaire (sodium-FFQ) and dietary habits were assessed. (3) Results: Excluding cooking salt and high-sodium seasonings, the daily dietary sodium intake among college students in Changsha, Hunan Province, was 1183.74 (563.38, 2054.86) mg/day. A vast majority (89%) of college students reported eating outside of school at least once a week, and approximately one-third (34%) ordered takeaways at least once a week. After adjusting for confounding factors, the associations between the frequency of eating out and ordering takeaways with college students' sodium intake remained significant. (4) Conclusions: The findings indicate that excessive dietary sodium intake among college students in Hunan is a growing concern. College students who frequently eat out and order takeaways tend to have a higher sodium intake. Future research should focus on identifying the main sources of dietary sodium and developing interventions that promote healthy dietary habits among college students.

Regional brain morphology of the primary somatosensory cortex correlates with spicy food consumption and capsaicin sensitivity

Objective: Habitual spicy food consumption leads to altered perception of capsaicin. Little is known about the neural morphological correlates of habitual spicy food intake and related trigeminal perceptions. In this study, we used voxel-based morphometry to identify brain regions where regional gray matter volume (GMV) correlates to spicy food consumption. Methods: Fifty-two participants were surveyed for their spicy food dietary habit by a composite score of spicy diet duration, frequency of spicy food consumption, and preferred degree of spiciness. Forty-two participants were further assessed for oral sensitivity and intensity ratings of capsaicin-induced irritation, and intranasal sensitivity and intensity of trigeminal odors. Results: We found that the composite spicy score was positively correlated to GMV of the primary somatosensory area (SI), and the primary (M1), supplementary motor areas (SMA) and the putamen. It was negatively correlated to GMV of the anterior insula, orbitofrontal cortex, frontal gyrus and angular gyrus. The GMV of the SI area was negatively correlated to capsaicin sensitivity; the GMV of the right middle frontal gyrus was positively correlated to the irritative intensity for capsaicin at high concentration (70 μM). However, we observed no correlation between the intranasal trigeminal sensitivity and spicy food consumption or the regional GMV. Discussion: Collectively our findings suggest a central neuroanatomical reflection of altered capsaicin perception in relation to habitual spicy food consumption. Future longitudinal studies should elucidate the possible causal relationship of dietary habit and brain structural plasticity.

Chili pepper preference development and its impact on dietary intake: A narrative review

A preference for chili pepper can be an acquired taste. The contrast between a chili lover and a hater illustrates the complexities involved in forming an appreciation for food that evokes a fiery pain sensation. This narrative review aims to understand the factors behind chili pepper preference formation across the life course and how individual chili pepper preferences can impact eating behaviors and dietary intake. This review was conducted using three databases, yielding 38 included articles. Results suggest five determinants of chili pepper preferences: culture, exposure, gender, genetics, and personality. Collective findings indicate that the strongest influences on preference acquisition include the individual environment from childhood to adulthood and repeated exposure to spicy flavors. With frequent exposure to spicy food, the perceived burn becomes less intense. Culture also influences exposure to chili peppers, with the highest consumption patterns seen within Mexico and some Asia countries. Additionally, males reported having a stronger preference for spicy foods than females. Twin studies illustrated that genetics influenced spicy taste preferences, underscoring the complexity of developing individual taste preferences. As for the impact of capsaicin-containing food on individual eating behaviors and dietary behaviors, appetite effects depend on the dose of capsaicin consumed, but three studies found a change in sensory desires for sweet and fatty foods after finishing a capsaicin-containing dish. Inconsistent results were reported for chili pepper's effects on hunger and satiety after consumption, but changes in specific food desires were observed. The impact of chili pepper on appetite and calories consumed was inconsistent, but the greater amount of capsaicin ingested, the greater the effect. Capsaicin's potential to be used for weight control needs to be further reviewed. In conclusion, evidence suggests that chili pepper preferences may be linked to innate and environmental aspects such as an individual's culture, gender, and genetics. Extrinsic factors like repeated exposure may increase the liking for spicy foods.

Spice Intake Among Chronic Gastritis Patients and Its Relationship With Blood Lipid Levels in South India

INTRODUCTION

Chronic gastritis is one of the most prevalent disorders affecting individuals. It affects hundreds of millions of people in different ways around the world. The objective of the study was to estimate the spice intake and its relationship with the blood lipid level among patients with chronic gastritis in the outpatient department of tertiary care hospital.

METHODOLOGY

The study design was a hospital-based cross-sectional study that was done in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. The study population included 208 chronic gastritis patients between 20 and 60 years of age selected by systematic sampling. Detailed information on sociodemographic and lifestyle factors was collected using a questionnaire. Individual dietary intake data were collected by the detailed 24-hour dietary recall. Spice intake was calculated using Diet Calc Software. An independent t-test was used as a test for significance. The correlation was used to study the relationship between spicy food intake and dyslipidemia. P-value <0.05 was significant.

RESULTS

A total of 208 patients were enrolled in the study with a response rate of 91%. The mean age of the studied patients was 45.15 ± 9.27 years, with 46.6% males and 53.4% females. Almost half (45.7%) of the participants had "mild" spicy food in their diet and almost two-fifths (39.9%) of participants had a "moderate or middle" degree of spice in their food. The mean dietary intake of condiments and spices by the participants was 34.19 (±22.18) gm/day. The current study showed higher spice intake was significantly correlated with impaired lipid profile levels with Kendall's tau_b correlation coefficient of 0.17 (p=0.01).

CONCLUSION

Because of the excessive use of spices in the Guntur region of Andhra Pradesh, people have grown accustomed to eating spicy food since childhood and therefore is at a higher risk of developing chronic gastritis, and dyslipidemia.

The Association between Spicy Food Consumption and Psychological Health in Chinese College Students: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Capsaicin is the main active ingredient in chili peppers and spicy food. Animal studies provide contradictory results on the role of capsaicin in psychiatric disorders. There are no epidemiological studies to investigate the relationship between spicy food consumption and psychological health.

METHODS

A cross-sectional online survey was conducted. Psychological health was assessed with the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, and spicy food consumption was assessed as frequency, strength, and duration of consumption. Multivariable logistic regression was conducted to determine the associations between spicy food consumption and psychological symptoms.

RESULTS

Our sample comprised 1771 participants (male = 674, mean age = 21.97 years). The odds of having depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms were 34.0%, 46.5%, and 19.1% in Chinese college students, respectively. After adjusting for a series of covariates, compared with non-consumers, the odds ratios (ORs) of depressive symptoms across spicy food consumption were 1.13 (95% CI: 0.87-1.46) for 1-2 days/week and 1.38 (95% CI: 1.02-1.86) for ≥3 days/week. With regard to anxiety symptoms, the ORs were 0.99 (95% CI: 0.78, 1.27) for 1-2 days/week and 1.50 (95% CI: 1.13-1.99) for ≥3 days/week. For stress symptoms, the ORs were 0.90 (95% CI: 0.66-1.23) for 1-2 days/week and 1.27 (95% CI: 0.89-1.80) for ≥3 days/week. The ORs for the depressive symptoms associated with different intensities of spicy food consumption were 1.00 (reference) for the reference group (non-consumers), 1.17 (95% CI: 0.90-1.52) for eating weakly spicy food, and 1.34 (95% CI: 1.01-1.78) for moderately to strongly spicy food.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggested a positive association between frequently spicy food consumption and depressive/anxiety symptoms in adolescents, and no such association was found for stress symptoms.

The Association Between Spicy Food Intake and Risk of Hyperuricemia Among Chinese Adults

Hyperuricemia is associated with substantial health and economic burden all over the world. Dietary habits are an important influencing factor of hyperuricemia. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between spicy food intake and hyperuricemia based on a large population. A total of 22,125 individuals aged 30-79 were enrolled in China Multi-Ethnic Cohort (CMEC), Chongqing region. Spicy food intake information was collected by a standardized questionnaire. The association between spicy food intake and hyperuricemia was estimated by multivariable logistic regression models and multiple linear regression models. Additionally, we explored these relations in subgroups stratified by sex and age. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses were conducted to verify the stability of current findings. After controlling for potential confounders, compared with participants who never consumed spicy food and consumed less hot, participants who ate 3-5 days per week and very hot had the highest risk of hyperuricemia; the ORs (95% CIs) were 1.28 (1.09, 1.5) and 1.22 (0.92, 1.63), respectively. Additionally, the corresponding ORs (95% CIs) for each level increment in the frequency and degree of pungency in spicy food intake were 1.04 (1.01, 1.07) (P trend = 0.009) and 1.15 (1.04, 1.26) (P trend = 0.004). Further in sex-stratified and age-stratified analysis, similar positive associations were observed among men and those aged 30-59, but no significant association was found among women and those aged 60-79. In the linear regression models, 3-5 days per week and moderate pungency in spicy food intake were associated with 5.21 μmol/L (95% CI: 1.72, 8.70) and 4.69 μmol/L (95% CI: 1.93, 7.45) higher serum urate level. Results in further subgroup analysis were generally consistent with the logistic regression models. This study suggests that spicy food intake may be a risk factor for hyperuricemia, especially in men and younger people, and more studies are warranted to verify the causal associations.

Association between frequency of spicy food consumption and hypertension: a cross-sectional study in Zhejiang Province, China

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a known risk factor for multiple chronic diseases. Existing literature on the association between frequency of spicy food consumption and hypertension shows mixed findings.

METHODS

The analyses are based on the Tongxiang baseline dataset of the China Kadoorie Biobank prospective study, including data from electronic questionnaires, physical measurements and blood sample collection. A total of 53,916 participants aged 30-79 years were included in the final analysis. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate the association of spicy food consumption with hypertension, and multiple linear regression was performed to explore the association of spicy food consumption with systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

RESULTS

Of the 53,916 participants, 23,921 had prevalent hypertension. 12.3% of participants reported consuming spicy food weekly. Among female participants, after adjusting for socio-demographic status, lifestyle factors, BMI, waist circumference, sleep duration and snoring, when compared with females who never consumed spicy food, the odds ratios (95% CI) for hypertension were 1.02 (0.96-1.08), 0.90 (0.79-1.01), and 0.88 (0.78-0.99), respectively, for females who consumed spicy food less than once weekly, 1-2 times weekly, and ≥ 3 times weekly (Ptrend = 0.04). The corresponding odds ratios for males were 1.02 (0.95-1.09), 1.07 (0.95-1.20), and 0.91 (0.81-1.01), respectively (Ptrend = 0.39). Among current alcohol drinkers, compared to participants who never consumed spicy food, the odds ratio (95% CI) for hypertension among participants consuming spicy food daily was 0.98 (0.80-1.20). The corresponding figure for non-current drinkers was 0.72 (0.62-0.84). The association was stronger among non-current alcohol drinkers than among current drinkers (Pheterogeneity = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

Frequency of spicy food consumption is inversely associated with hypertension in females, but not in males.